Students read text that explains weather forecasts are probabilistic and that scientists use instruments and climate patterns to make predictions, giving them exposure to statements about current conditions versus predictions. In Activity 1, students watch local forecasts, note what meteorologists report about specific events, and are asked to choose an audience and rewrite the forecast to emphasize particular factors. The vocabulary activity has students define predict and forecast, reinforcing distinctions between observed conditions and future-looking statements.

Students read informational text and answer factual questions (e.g., identify Fahrenheit, explain how humidity and wind affect how temperature feels). Students record daily temperature, precipitation, and notes/forecasts in a Weather Journal, collecting empirical measurements as observable facts. Students perform the "Model the Seasons" activity and answer questions about where the Sun's rays are most/least direct and what temperatures are usually like, using a model to draw conclusions. A parent prompt asks students to compare their thermometer reading with official forecasts and discuss reasons for differences, encouraging interpretation of data.

Students are asked to follow the steps of the scientific method in Activity 1, including making a hypothesis, recording data/observations, and drawing a conclusion, which sets up the difference between a guess and evidence. In Activity 3 and the wind-chill tasks, students use measured temperature and wind-speed data and a wind-chill chart to determine frostbite risk, which requires forming evidence-based (reasoned) judgments. In Wrapping Up, students are asked to find barometric pressure and use changes plus wind direction to predict (make reasoned forecasts) upcoming weather.

Students read textbook pages and the "Things to Know" section and fill in definitions (e.g., stratus, cumulus, cirrus), which provides clear factual statements about cloud composition and types. Students record observations in a weather journal and use cloud types and air pressure to predict later weather, practicing reasoned judgment based on observations and referenced resources. Discussion prompts (e.g., "Do you think ‘burn off' is a good way to describe the disappearance of clouds?") ask students to offer opinions or speculate about cloud behavior.

Students read explanatory text and answer direct factual questions (e.g., causes of thunderstorms, lightning, hurricanes), which requires identifying and recording factual information. The Wild Weather Search research activity asks students to gather causes, effects, and historical occurrences, which can lead them to form evidence-based explanations. The Weather Journal prompt asks students to observe clouds and predict upcoming weather, giving students a chance to make a prediction that contrasts with observational facts.

Students are asked to use external data sources (NOAA) and videos about ocean currents and jet streams to explore causes of local and global climate (Activity 2 and Activity 3). The Parent Plan skills explicitly instruct students to "ask questions to clarify evidence of the factors that have caused the rise in global temperatures" and to "conclude" how human and natural factors impact climate. Students must show and explain their completed world climate map to a parent and discuss questions that require giving reasons (e.g., why storms move west to east, what air mass forms over Africa).

Students examine empirical data by watching a NASA video and exploring the Climate Time Machine interactive maps, then record and label observed changes in carbon dioxide, sea ice, sea level, and temperature. Students carry out a greenhouse jar experiment, record temperatures, and discuss observable results as evidence of heat trapping. Students are prompted to compare past and present data and to write a short sentence predicting what could happen if temperatures keep rising.

Students are prompted to explain how they used their weather journal data to make predictions on the Weather Journal Presentation Planning page (e.g., "How was able to predict what the weather might be like in the future based on my data?"). The final-project rubric requires students to "Describe how I made weather predictions," "Explain how I gathered data," and "Describe patterns I found," which asks students to base conclusions on collected observations. The unit test and activity pages require students to identify factual information about instruments, pressure systems, the water cycle, and causes of weather, providing practice with factual claims.

Students read definitional material (Things to Know and answer keys) and use National Geographic to find real-world examples, which provides factual information. Students perform an erosion demonstration and a river/flow modeling activity and then describe results and how human actions influence erosion, which asks them to draw conclusions from observations. Students answer reflective prompts (e.g., "How would you feel about taking a boat trip...?") that invite personal impressions or speculation.

Students read an online United Nations article about population and answer guided questions that ask about how the world's population is changing and why people migrate, which requires use of factual population data. In Activity 1 students collect and map population figures (dot maps), practicing identification and use of factual data. In Activity 2 and the Comparing Two Environments activity students use information from Prisoners of Geography to list benefits/challenges and then explain which place they would prefer to live, requiring them to form and support reasoned judgments based on research. The Life Application invites students to interview relatives about migration reasons, which prompts students to generate speculative explanations tied to personal accounts.

Students read specified sections of Prisoners of Geography and answer targeted comprehension questions that ask them to explain authors' claims (for example, why the author says Europe is "blessed by geography" and why Europe has a violent history). Students identify causal relationships from the text when they explain how geography shaped nations (e.g., rivers enabling trade, mountains providing protection, oil and gas bringing wealth to Russia) and label map features that support those explanations. Students also research a geographic feature for a postcard, locating information and images online to describe the place.

Students are asked to do research about a local place and to write "Written Descriptions" of landforms, waterforms, climate, and natural resources, which requires gathering factual information. Students complete a "Human Activities" page that prompts them to explain how people use the place, how activities might impact the environment, and what can be done to protect it, which asks for explanations that could be based on research. Students answer open-ended test questions and write brief summaries of key concepts, requiring them to produce explanations and examples (e.g., differences between renewable and nonrenewable resources, how resources affect economics).

Students compose three supported arguments in a structured debate, providing evidence and anticipating counterarguments. Students are instructed to identify which statements in their arguments are facts and which are opinions and to discuss emotional appeals. The activity prompts students to support positions with organized and relevant evidence and to read their arguments aloud for review.

Students read chapters 14–16 and answer comprehension questions that require recalling specific events (e.g., Why does Torren hate Lina?) and explaining characters' feelings (e.g., How does Doon feel?), which practices identifying factual content and interpreting text. One question explicitly asks for opinion/ethical judgment (Do you think Casper should have shared food?), prompting students to give reasons for a judgment. In Activity 1 and Activity 2 students must choose a media outlet or select five items and explain why, which asks them to provide reasons to support a chosen position.

Students are asked to provide evidence from the text in the Story Conflict activity, citing events, characters' words and actions, or dialogue to support the identified conflict. In Activity 1 students brainstorm solutions, evaluate the merits and feasibility of ideas, select the best option, and write a 6–8 sentence speech explaining and defending their solution. Option 2 of Activity 3 asks students to design an experiment with a materials list and step-by-step directions, requiring them to reason about what is possible given available resources.

Students are asked to research a chosen rock online and use that research to decide where the rock might be found, which supports making evidence-based judgments. Students are prompted in the wrap-up to "Discuss how much of your poem or artwork is a guess, imagination, or something you know about that rock's environment," which asks them to separate speculation from knowledge. The Parent Plan lists a skill to "Analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions, and develop the relationship between evidence and explanation," indicating students will practice using evidence to support inferences.

Students read specified pages of a science text and answer factual comprehension questions (e.g., causes of earthquakes, what instrument measures quake strength, and what tsunamis are), which requires identifying facts in the text. Students are asked to explain why surface waves do the most damage ("Why do you think they are so damaging to buildings?"), prompting them to form and state reasoned judgments. In Activity 1 and Activity 2 students collect data (taps to topple sugar-cube buildings; observations of P and S waves using a Slinky) and share observations, which supports drawing conclusions from experimental findings.

Students are asked to write a hypothesis for the Cementation Experiment and later record Results and Conclusions, which requires making a speculative prediction and then comparing it to observed data. The Cementation Activity explicitly separates Hypothesis, Procedure, Results, and Conclusions, so students generate conjectures, collect facts (experimental observations), and state conclusions. Activity 1 asks students to note which steps of the scientific method have been used and which have been left out, prompting reflection on how hypotheses, tests, and evidence relate.

Students make hypotheses and record predictions in the Ice Cold Weathering Experiment and are asked later whether their hypotheses were correct (speculation → test). Students observe and record concrete changes in the Drip, Drip, Drip demonstration and the Soil sorting activity (factual observations). Students are asked to draw conclusions about why one briquette broke apart more easily and to ‘‘notice which steps of the scientific method have been used,'' connecting observations to reasons (reasoned judgment).

Students read informational text about erosion and answer direct factual questions (e.g., definitions of erosion, causes, and ventifacts), which requires identifying facts. In Activity 1 students design experiments, write a hypothesis, record materials and procedure, collect results, and write a conclusion on the Student Activity Page. In the flip-book and journal options students create imagined timelines of change, which requires making speculative predictions about future or past states.

Students conduct Mars research (Activity 3) and are instructed to "record facts about Mars in your journal," which requires identifying factual information from NASA/ESA sources. Students complete Activity 2 by listing three examples each of "Rational World" and "Non-rational Events," which requires them to categorize story events as realistic versus magical or impossible. Students also compare environment descriptions and record textual evidence in a journal (Activity 4), practicing pulling descriptive statements from the text.

Students are asked to conduct Pompeii research and "record ten important facts" they learned about the city (Activity 4), which requires locating and listing factual information from sources. In the volcano experiment activity students formulate a Question and a Hypothesis and then record Procedure, Results, and Conclusion, which engages them in distinguishing hypotheses from experimental results. The reading questions and discussion prompt students to note how townspeople and priests explained the natural phenomenon, exposing students to different kinds of explanations presented within the text.

Students are asked to identify concrete changes that occurred while Rip was asleep (Question #3), which requires recalling factual information from the text. Students are asked to justify a characterization of Rip using his actions (Questions #1 and #2), which involves distinguishing text-based evidence from opinion. Students are prompted to offer an opinion about whether Rip regrets being asleep (Question #4) and to imagine waking up twenty years later (Activity 2), both of which elicit speculation or personal judgment.

The lesson asks students to write one "In the Text" question whose answers are found directly in the text, which has students identify factual information. It also asks students to write a "Think and Search" question that requires inference from the text and a "Reader and Author" and "On My Own" question that ask students to combine personal knowledge with the text or provide personal opinions. Activities require students to cite specific examples from the text to support a theme and to identify story elements (e.g., plot events, point of view), which has students reference text-based evidence.

Students are asked to cite evidence from a map and text (QUESTION #1: "How do you know?") when identifying which region had more factories, using map graphics and left-hand data showing a 10:1 factory production ratio. QUESTIONS #2 and #3 ask students to infer who did the work and what role machines played, prompting students to form judgments based on the readings (e.g., identifying enslaved people doing much agricultural work vs. machine use in the North). Activity 2 (Population Map) asks students to interpret census data dots and then evaluate implications ("Do you think cities with large populations would be beneficial during a war?"), which requires students to move from facts to reasoned judgment or speculation.

The lesson defines primary and secondary sources and asks students to read both kinds (Activity 1 and Day 2) and to consider how reading a primary source differs from reading a secondary source. Activity 2 explicitly tells students that some WPA narratives may contain misspellings, dialect, and possible inaccuracies or interviewer bias, and it asks students to add these readings to their notes for later synthesis. The parent/discussion prompts ask students to compare how secondary sources differ from slave narratives and to reflect on what they learned in the KWL chart.

Students read specified chapters and answer guided questions that ask them to explain causes (e.g., why Lincoln appointed different commanders) with an answer that refers to the text ("As the text explains on page 66…"). Students complete timeline and leader-card activities in which they record factual details (background, roles, notable events, dates) and use the book's glossary or other sources for research. Students also write "My impressions of this leader" and fill in descriptive words, which asks them to state opinions about leaders.

Students are asked to record factual details such as dates, locations, and who won for specific battles on timeline and map activity pages, and to circle Union or Confederate victories. Students answer targeted factual and interpretive questions (e.g., what went wrong with McClellan's plans; what was important about Antietam) that require citing events from the reading. Students are prompted to research and use sources when designing a monument, and to write explanations of why each battle was significant, which involves forming reasoned judgments based on the text or optional research.

Students read primary-source texts (the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments) and are asked to restate their meaning in their own words and explain their importance. The lesson explains the difference between historical fiction and nonfiction and asks students, when writing fiction, to use historical research to make events "reasonably" accurate. Students also answer questions about postwar events and challenges using readings (e.g., describing Freedmen's Bureau, Black Codes).

The Skills list asks students to "Differentiate between, locate, and use primary and secondary sources" and to "analyze information by ... drawing inferences and conclusions," which requires using evidence to form explanations. The museum exhibit and documentary options require students to gather historical images and sources, write exhibit cards or scripts that "sum up what you think is important," and provide written explanations or narration judged for accuracy in the rubrics. The unit test and parent guidance ask students to cite reasons for the Civil War and to list factual details about slavery, prompting evidence-based answers.

Students read and analyze two primary sources (a Tennessee schoolgirl's diary and a prisoner-of-war journal) and are prompted to discuss the perspectives of both authors. Parent-facing guidance and the Skills list instruct students to "Distinguish between fact and opinion," to "Summarize the author's purpose and stance," and to "Explore any bias, apparent or hidden messages, or emotional factors." Students also conduct secondary-source research on the Battle of Bull Run and record important information on color-coded note cards, linking research activities to their analysis.

Activity 1 asks students to identify and record factual information about the Civil War from the picture book (e.g., "Marauders robbed many homes"). Activity 5 requires students to read Civil War letters, identify the writers and recipients, determine which side they are on, and note the opinions they express about the enemy. The point-of-view activity has students rewrite passages from another narrator's perspective, prompting them to compare narrator impressions and what counts as observable detail versus personal perspective.

Activity 2 directs students to read a Civil War speech and record three factual statements and three opinion statements from the text. The same activity asks students to identify at least two statements that could function as propaganda and to examine period pictures, explaining how each image could have been used to sway Northern attitudes toward Southerners. The Parent Plan and Skills list explicitly frame student tasks around making informed judgments about propaganda, exploring bias, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.

Students create and evaluate Civil War propaganda posters and are asked to explain the message and how it would influence a reader. The Parent Plan lists skills that students will practice such as making informed judgments about propaganda, exploring bias and underlying assumptions, and drawing conclusions based on evidence or relevant information. The reading questions ask students to interpret character statements (e.g., whether a doctor's claim is true) and justify opinions.

Students are asked to list pros and cons, decide two arguments to support their position, and identify an opposing argument to refute, which requires weighing different kinds of claims. Students are instructed to "support the position with organized and relevant evidence," to "use information you learned from the books you read on the Civil War," and the rubric asks for "use of knowledgeable sources" and "logical arguments." The rubric and prewriting pages require students to anticipate and address counterarguments and to provide reasons why opposing claims do not hold merit.

Students are asked to state hypotheses before experiments (e.g., the "Hypotheses" prompts on the "Look Out Below" and parachute pages), which has them generate speculation about outcomes. Students then run experiments, record results in tables, and answer "Results" and "Conclusion" questions that require them to interpret observed data (reasoned judgments based on findings). The lesson text also includes explicit factual statements under "Things to Know" and factual questions in the Reading and Questions section that students answer using the book's explanations.

Students are asked to follow the steps of the scientific method, including writing a hypothesis (a guess), recording data and observations, and writing results and conclusions, which practices moving from speculation to evidence-based conclusions. In the Force Experiment activities students collect force and mass data, plot graphs, and state whether their hypothesis was correct, giving practice in forming reasoned judgments based on experimental findings. In the marbles activity and poster activity students draw or describe observed scenarios and state Newton's laws, which requires them to identify and record observable facts and link them to explanations.

Students are asked to write a hypothesis, make predictions, record results, and write conclusions in the 'What's the Attraction?' experiment, which requires forming a speculation (hypothesis), collecting observational facts (results), and making a judgment about the hypothesis (conclusion). The Magnetic Fields activity has students use a compass to map and record field lines—collecting empirical observations and representing them visually. The reading and question section asks students to read specified pages and answer factual questions about magnetism, prompting identification of factual information.

Students are asked to write 'Takeaway' notes or conclusions for each station and to fill out station cards with procedures and materials, which prompts them to record observations and explain what is happening. The unit test includes short-answer questions (e.g., "What is inertia? How does Newton's first law of motion describe inertia?" and explanations about bouncing and gravity) that require students to state definitions and give reasoned explanations based on experimental principles. Students are directed to use conclusion-style notes from previous demonstrations and to test stations to ensure procedures and explanations are clear, which involves forming evidence-based conclusions.

The Parent Plan for Activity 4 instructs students to watch video clips and to "listen to statements that are facts about Einstein's life and those that are the narrator's opinions," which asks students to distinguish factual statements from opinions. Activity 4 also asks students to take notes on important ideas and information while viewing, and Activity 5 asks students to write a summary using those notes. The discussion prompts ask students to compare how the book and video accounts are similar and different, which invites students to evaluate different types of statements across texts.

Students read an encyclopedia entry and compare it to a biography and videos in the "Forms of Media" activity, answering questions about purpose, differences, and when to use each source. The lesson text explicitly contrasts wanting "the facts without too much detail or embellishment" and states that reference works like encyclopedias provide that. In reading chapters and answering questions, students infer meaning (e.g., explain what Einstein meant by "lone traveler") and draw conclusions about causes (e.g., reasons he was passed over for the Nobel Prize).

Students are asked to record at least three statements that are facts and at least two statements that are opinions while watching a biography video (Activity 4). The Parent Plan and skills list explicitly include "Distinguish between fact and opinion," and students answer factual reading questions (e.g., what theory Einstein disagreed with, why he moved to America). Students also discuss whether Einstein's action was right or wrong, which prompts them to state judgments.

Students are asked to analyze the biography's elements, including identifying where the author "implies or notes how the writer feels about the person" and to provide examples that demonstrate those elements (Option 2). The skills list directs students to "analyze, make inferences, and draw conclusions about expository text and provide evidence from text to support understanding," and Activity 2 asks students to research questions by asking "Have others already asked the question? What have they discovered?" which prompts use of research findings.

Students are asked to use factual information when completing the Certificate of Birth and to gather at least three photographs and three of Einstein's actual quotes, which requires locating and recording factual sources. Students must conduct research (with assistance) using multiple sources as noted in the Parent Plan skills and are directed to use their biography web and timeline to find information. Students also create imagined texts (an imagined letter and a journal entry written from Einstein's point of view), which explicitly engages them in producing speculative or fictionalized writing.

The lesson defines primary and secondary sources and asks students to identify whether photographs or captions are primary or secondary, which engages source evaluation. Students compare a 1914 New York Times front page to a modern newspaper and list observable differences, which prompts identification of factual features. Activities ask students to "describe the technology and its impact" and to answer "What do you think soldiers... might have thought?", requiring students to provide judgments and speculation based on reading and photos.

Students are prompted to consider how an author knows about events and what primary sources the author could use in the "Wrapping Up" section, and they are asked to list kinds of sources historians can use in the "Questions to Discuss" (interviews, photographs, newspapers, diaries, letters, propaganda posters, etc.). Activity 2 and the extension ask students to examine and collect primary sources (photographs, letters, objects) and to think about what those sources reveal about life in the past. The poem activity asks students to reflect on the emotional impact of a poem, which separates emotional response from factual content.

Students read primary and secondary texts (Where Poppies Grow pages 36–46; Hakim, Chapters 1–2) and answer analytic questions about causes and consequences of the Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles activity page asks students to list key parts of Wilson's plan, state reasons Wilson supported each part, and compare how the treaty was similar or different, and prompts students with "Why do you think Wilson was not able to achieve…" questions. In Activity 1 students examine World War I letters and notice how soldiers intentionally omit specifics and use vague references, then practice conveying information indirectly.

Students read assigned chapters and answer factual comprehension questions (e.g., why Hitler appealed to Germans, what anti-Semitism led to, and why some Americans hesitated), which requires extracting facts from text. In Activity 1 students create two columns labeled "reasons to go to war" and "reasons to stay out of the war" and must provide at least two reasons in a letter to President Roosevelt, which asks them to use evidence from the reading to support an opinion. In Activity 2 students record factual details and descriptive judgments about world leaders (country, important actions, goals, words to describe), which has them separate concrete information from evaluative descriptions.

Students read informational text (Joy Hakim chapters 35-36) and answer comprehension and interpretive questions that ask for causes and significance (e.g., Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4). The Weapons of War activity asks students to describe historical examples (fact), explain how a weapon differed from earlier ones (analysis), and judge whether a weapon made a big difference and explain why (reasoned judgment). The Life Application and web links invite students to consult oral histories and library resources, which could be used to support research-based conclusions.

Students are asked to take objective reporter-style notes (Who, What, When, Where, Why) in Activity 2 and are explicitly told to focus on factual information and be objective. Activity 1 and the Day 2 discussion ask students to consider reasons military leaders had (e.g., feared casualties) and to imagine concerns in an invasion, prompting formulation of reasoned judgments based on readings. Several prompts (e.g., "How do you think American people felt?") invite students to offer speculative responses and discuss emotions or opinions.

Students are asked to read the book's Afterword to "discover which parts of the story were based on actual historic fact," prompting them to separate factual from fictional elements. Students conduct research using trusted websites, are instructed to put information in their own words, and to include quotations and "factoids" in their article, which foregrounds use of evidence. The rubric and skills list require students to "include specific facts, details, and examples" and to "guide and inform the reader's understanding of key ideas and evidence."

Students are prompted to read specific book pages and answer comparative questions (e.g., how nonmetals and halogens are alike and different), which asks them to use textual information to make distinctions. In Activity 2 students formulate an experimental question, record materials and procedures, make observations, and write conclusions on the 'Test Your Nonmetal' sheet, which requires moving from observed data to a conclusion. Students are also asked to research a gaseous element and show examples of its uses, which has them collect and report findings from sources.

Students read and use explicit factual statements in the text (for example, the lists naming which elements are gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature) and apply those facts when coloring and classifying the periodic table. Students carry out experiments, record observations in before/after tables, and answer prompts and a dedicated "Conclusions" question, giving them opportunities to form reasoned judgments based on their experimental findings.

Students are asked to make a hypothesis in the "Will It Float?" activity, predicting outcomes before testing, which engages them in speculation. Students conduct tests (inflate balloons, drop objects in layered liquids), record results, and are prompted to "draw conclusions" in analysis sections, which practices forming reasoned judgments based on experimental findings. Students also answer factual reading questions (e.g., "What is volume?", "If you pour a liquid denser than water... what will the liquid do?"), which requires identifying factual information from the texts and video.

Students observe and record measurable properties (state, color, luster, heaviness, magnetism, malleability, conductivity) on the "Mystery Element Observations" pages, producing empirical facts. Students compare their test results with unit materials and an interactive periodic table, write guesses for element identity, and explain the reasoning behind classifications as required by the rubric. The rubric and activities ask students to analyze findings, choose additional experiments, and explain why they think an element is a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal, which requires forming reasoned judgments from their data.

Students are asked to record three quotes or actions from the book that describe characters' feelings about living forever and to place those quotes under Pros or Cons, which requires finding and citing textual evidence. The Rules of Debate explicitly instruct students not to present opinions as facts and to avoid absolute language (never/always), prompting students to consider the difference between opinion and assertion. Students prepare opening arguments, questions, and answers that require them to use evidence from the text to support and defend positions.

Students answer factual recall questions from the reading (e.g., when Rosa Parks was arrested and how the boycott ended), showing practice identifying facts. Question #2 asks students to explain Rosa Parks' motive and to distinguish the book's statement that she was "tired of being treated unfairly" from the literal idea of physical tiredness, prompting interpretation of supported claims versus simple conjecture. The Research Workshop asks students to list "facts, things you've heard, and questions," which asks them to separate known information from hearsay or open questions.

Students read nonfiction pages about the Civil Rights Movement and answer Question #1 asking whether passage of the Voting Rights Act meant the movement had been successful, which asks them to evaluate evidence and form a judgment. In Activity 2 Option 2 students research a modern example of discrimination and create a flyer that requires gathering facts and proposing actions based on their findings. Activities 1 options ask students to identify concrete changes (before-and-after poem or object analogies), which involves citing factual differences and explaining their significance.

Students are directed to "keep track of instances of discrimination" on the "Recognizing Discrimination" pages, which requires identifying textual examples. The Parent Plan lists the skill to "Critique the credibility of characterization and the degree to which a plot is contrived or realistic," which asks students to evaluate how believable claims in the text are. Discussion questions (e.g., about Mr. Morrison's choice not to tell Mama) prompt students to interpret character motivations and separate reported actions from opinions about them.

Students read a factual explanation of sharecropping in the "Things to Know" and Activity 1, providing clear factual content about how the system worked. Students answer inference questions (e.g., Why do you think T.J. is hanging around R.W. and Melvin?) that require them to offer speculative or inferential explanations based on the chapter. Students are asked to create a written quote portraying a sharecropping family's thoughts and to explain the system to someone else, which requires generating imagined perspectives and using evidence from the text or video.

Students read Chapter 11 and answer direct comprehension questions (QUESTION #1 and QUESTION #2) that require recalling facts from the text about how and why T.J. was hurt. Students are prompted to predict what will happen in the final chapter and to discuss whether Stacey should have acted, which elicits speculation and opinion. Students are also asked to track instances of discrimination on the "Recognizing Discrimination" pages and to discuss why T.J. might not be believed, prompting students to consider reasons and consequences.

Students are asked to include Slide 2 with "examples of discrimination" drawn from the story and from Jim Crow laws and related unit texts, which requires them to identify factual examples. Slide 3 asks students to "provide suggestions for how changes can be made," prompting them to produce reasoned judgments or policy recommendations and to "support opinions with detailed evidence" per the skills list. Slide 4 asks students to "describe how the community will change," prompting students to state predictions or speculations about future outcomes based on their proposals.

Students read a science text and answer questions that require justification (e.g., "Do you think ocean water is a pure substance? Why or why not?"). Students carry out experiments (iron filings, sand, water) and record observations, then explain whether the result shows a mixture or a compound. Several prompts ask students to explain how their demonstration supports a conclusion, which requires using observed/experimental findings to support a claim.

Several student activity pages (Color Shift, Prepare a Precipitate, It's a Gas!, Clean Pennies, Rusty Shapes) require students to write a hypothesis, record observations, and write conclusions. The activities explicitly prompt students to note observable results (e.g., color changes, gas production, temperature changes) and to answer questions that ask them to explain how the observations demonstrate a chemical change. Some tasks ask students to justify their reasoning (for example, explaining whether a reaction was endothermic or exothermic and why the observed color change indicates a chemical change).

Students are asked to make predictions about the pH of household items and then test those items with pH strips, recording actual pH and noting whether results were surprising, which practices comparing speculation to empirical findings. The reading/questions section includes direct factual questions (e.g., names of products of acid-base reactions and which element is donated), which require students to identify and state facts from the text. The Valence card activity has students rearrange element cards to produce products and explain resulting formulas, which requires using evidence (cards/measurements) to support chemical conclusions.

Students perform hands-on demonstrations (Teeth Demo, Saliva Demo, Stomach Demo) where they record observations, decide whether results show a physical or chemical change, and explain their reasoning. The project and rubrics require students to "explain why changes are chemical or physical" and to "communicate scientific concepts and explanations, based on evidence" in posters or presentations. The Chemical Change Test asks students to identify observable indicators of chemical change, reinforcing evidence-based conclusions.

Students answer direct factual questions (QUESTION #1 asks what unusual trait Jonas and Gabe share), and students are prompted to offer speculation (QUESTION #3: "What do you think the change is?" with answers varying). Students are asked to make and explain judgments about the society (Introducing the Lesson asks whether the society is perfect and to explain why or why not) and to provide evidence and draw conclusions (Parent Plan skills list "provide evidence from the text" and "infer the implicit theme").

The parent-plan skills explicitly ask students to "summarize the main ideas... demonstrating an understanding that a summary does not include opinions," and to "explain whether facts included in an argument are used for or against an issue," which require distinguishing fact from opinion in student responses. Activity 1 directs students to record a possible positive and negative effect for each community rule, write reasoning, and then defend whether the rule should exist, prompting students to produce and justify judgments based on text details. Discussion prompts ask students to defend decisions and discuss how rules reflect societal values, encouraging evaluation of evidence versus opinion in their explanations.

Students answer direct factual comprehension questions (Questions #1–#4) that require recalling events from the text. Students identify euphemisms and are instructed to record their "Actual Meaning" or to predict meanings when the actual meaning is not revealed, which asks them to distinguish between known fact and a conjecture. The skills list asks students to "Recognize exaggerated, contradictory, or misleading statements," prompting practice with identifying statements that are not straightforward facts.

Students read chapters and answer a factual question (e.g., identifying that the community never saw the previous Receiver again), showing practice in locating facts. Discussion prompts ask students to predict Jonas's job and explain how historical memories could help the community, requiring students to produce reasoned explanations. The History activity asks students to describe three historical events and explain how each memory could benefit Jonas's community, prompting students to justify connections between past events and present choices.

The lesson has students read Prisoners of Geography (pp. 64-69) and answer questions that require both factual responses (e.g., naming countries and coastal city placement) and interpretive reasoning (e.g., "How might this impact their culture?"). Students collect and record concrete facts when they label maps, list capitals, languages, natural resources, and fill out the Island Data Disk (Resources, Climate, Industry, Environment). The skills and parent plan describe activities in which students "analyze" how location influences ways of living and "evaluate the impact" of human-environment interactions, which prompt students to form reasoned judgments based on research.

Students read an informational nonfiction book (What Was the Great Depression) and answer specific questions asking them to list three reasons for the Depression and explain effects on farmers, which has them identify causes and supporting details. Students examine primary-source photos and firsthand accounts and are asked to create a photo journal using those accounts, requiring them to integrate multiple sources and consider perspective. A discussion question asks students to compare how photos (primary sources) and the informational book (secondary source) were useful, and another question asks students to consider the author's purpose and how a novel's viewpoint will differ from an informational text.

Students are prompted to make and justify interpretations about events (e.g., "What do you think really happened to Papa? ... Why do you think this?") and to predict future events (predict how life in America will be different for Esperanza and Miguel), which requires separating what is explicitly stated from inferences. The Wordsmith activity has students select and discuss passages they find important or puzzling, encouraging them to cite textual details when explaining their choices.

Students are asked to listen to two first‑hand interviews with Mexican migrant workers and to use those accounts as background when considering reasons for strikes. Students examine a list of strike reasons and are instructed to "record information from the book that could support the reasons," summarizing examples and providing page numbers. Students complete a graphic organizer ('On Strike!') that directs them to match textual examples to specific reasons workers might strike and to summarize those examples.

Students are prompted to list at least three facts about cheek cells and three facts about paramecia in both the presentation and illustrated report options, and the Cheek Cell and Paramecium organizer has explicit rows labeled "1 Fact," "2 Fact," and "3 Fact." In the Be Cheeky! activity students make observations through the microscope and answer a Conclusions question asking how many organelles from the diagram are clearly visible, which requires making a judgment based on their observations. The Questions to Discuss include prompts that ask students to state major differences and to answer "What do you think the most important part of an animal cell is, and why?", which elicits students' reasoned judgments or opinions.

Students write explicit hypotheses before conducting the brine shrimp experiment and record Day 1–3 results and observations in the student activity pages. The pages prompt students to answer "Was your hypothesis correct?" and to write "Why do you think this happened?" so students compare observed data to their original hypothesis. Reading-and-question tasks ask students to extract factual information (e.g., features of grasslands, biotic vs abiotic factors, locations of planktonic and benthic habitats).

Students are asked to read poems and respond to a question that explicitly contrasts a poet's claim with a factual correction (Question #3 explains that the poet was mistaken about the T‑Rex bone count). Students are directed to research a chosen prehistoric animal's habitat and how it lived before writing an obituary, which requires gathering research-based information and forming written descriptions. Students also perform a fossil excavation activity and are given the statement that scientists learn about the past by examining fossil remains, linking evidence to conclusions about prehistoric life.

The Camouflage (Option 2) activity asks students to write a Question and a Hypothesis, carry out a Procedure, record Results, and write a Conclusion, and it prompts a follow-up question about what the experiment reinforces about camouflage. The student activity page provides explicit spaces for Hypothesis, Results, and Conclusion, and the Parent Plan asks the child to explain the results. Students are therefore prompted to generate speculation (hypothesis), collect observational data (results/facts), and state a conclusion (interpretation based on findings).

Students are asked to record factual details on the Incan Archaeology page (name of object, when it was made, where it was made, important details) and to take notes from videos and readings to summarize the fall of the Aztec and Inca (facts and causal information). The Incan Archaeology page explicitly asks "How do you think the object was used?" which prompts students to speculate, and "What can this object tell us about Incan culture?" which prompts interpretation or reasoned judgment based on their research. Activity 3 and the timeline tasks require students to collect and summarize factual historical events and causes (e.g., dates, arrivals, allies, disease, weaponry).

Students record observable details about artifacts (what the artifact is, where it was found, a drawing, a detailed description, and what they think it is made of) on the "Analyzing Artifacts" pages. Students estimate the age and possible use of artifacts and complete a conclusion prompt asking them to state "what conclusions" they can reach about the people who owned the objects and to "explain the reasoning behind your conclusions." The review notes ask that students' arguments be "logical and supported by the available evidence," and questions/answers reference research methods (e.g., radiocarbon dating) that can inform reasoned judgments.

Students read primary-source laws from Hammurabi's Code and complete a table comparing those laws to how similar issues are handled in modern communities, which asks them to evaluate which law seems more fair. In Activity 1 students answer "Why do you think so many groups...settled and thrived in this area?" and list natural resources and uses, prompting them to provide explanations based on evidence from maps and readings. Activity 6 asks students to write concise 2-3 sentence summaries of pages, practicing distinguishing main ideas from supporting details in a text.

Students answer direct factual questions on the unit test (e.g., identify rivers, match leaders, recall what archaeologists do), which engages them in identifying facts. Students plan archaeological expeditions and select artifacts, then write what each artifact 'tells us about the culture,' requiring them to make evidence-based inferences from sources. Students review and choose websites for a web-based tour, write short descriptions of what each site teaches, and are directed to prefer trusted sources (museums, universities, PBS/National Geographic).

Students make and record empirical observations and data in the Surface Tension Investigation and Pepper Problem (counting drops, noting what happens when soap is added). Students generate predictions (e.g., "How many drops of water do you think a penny can hold?") and then compare those predictions with trial data. Students are asked to analyze evidence and explain observations in prompts like "Why does water form a dome on the penny?" and the Life Application task asks students to use evidence from the lesson to explain consequences if water were no longer polar.

Students are prompted to make predictions (e.g., the 'Make a Prediction' prompt) and then collect measurements and calculate density, using those data to explain patterns (e.g., 'use evidence from your measurements to explain your answer'). Students are asked to decide whether a chemical reaction or a physical change occurred and to 'Explain your reasoning' based on observed signs (bubbles, color change, heat). Activities require students to compare observations, record data, and draw conclusions about how salinity affects mass and density.

Students read Chapter 3 and answer direct questions about definitions and processes (e.g., thermohaline circulation, upwelling), which requires identifying factual information. Students carry out experiments, collect observations, and are asked to "construct an explanation based on evidence" and "analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions," which practices forming reasoned judgments from data. Students also answer prediction questions (e.g., "What would happen if the water became even hotter?"), which asks them to generate speculative predictions based on models and observations.

Students read Chapter 4 and an accompanying article and then answer questions that require using text and data to support answers (e.g., why groundwater is important; challenges to water sustainability). Students analyze a bar chart of water needed to produce foods and answer "What pattern do you notice," which asks them to interpret research-based data. The Parent Plan and skills list explicitly ask students to "analyze evidence," "make inferences and predictions," and "construct explanations based on evidence," indicating tasks that require forming reasoned judgments from texts and data.

Students are asked to read Chapter 5 and answer factual questions (e.g., define biodiversity), which practices identifying facts in a text. Multiple activities require students to "make a claim" and "support it with evidence," construct explanations based on evidence, and "analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions." In the food chain and food web activities, students explicitly predict population changes (hypotheses/speculation) and then are prompted to explain those predictions using evidence from their models and game results.

Students read Chapter 6 and answer questions that require explaining causes and processes (e.g., what is evaporation, how Sun and gravity keep the cycle moving). Students build a Ziplock-bag model, change conditions, observe results, and are asked to "Construct an explanation based on evidence" and "Analyze and interpret observations" to determine how energy affects evaporation. The activity asks students to make predictions (e.g., what would happen to the water cycle if there were no energy from the Sun?) and to compare results after experimental changes, which requires them to base conclusions on observed data.

The lesson repeatedly asks students to use evidence and make inferences: skills list items include "Construct an explanation based on evidence," "Analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions," and "Construct explanations to describe how the speed of water influences erosion and deposition." Activities require students to analyze a river map and "use evidence from your observations" to explain where erosion and deposition occur and to answer "Think Like a Scientist" prediction questions. Student worksheets prompt students to "Explain your answer using evidence from your observations" and to "analyze the evidence" in river systems.

Students are asked to analyze Graph 1 and Graph 2 and "use evidence from the graph to support your answers," which requires interpreting data to make claims about dissolved oxygen and pollutants. Students conduct a runoff experiment, observe and record results, and answer questions that ask them to "use your observations to explain" how materials affect water quality. The skills list and parent-plan repeatedly state that students will "construct an explanation based on evidence" and "construct an argument supported by evidence," tying student tasks to making evidence-based judgments.

Students gather observations and data in multiple activities (Water Filtration Challenge, Water Quality Experiment, The Great Leak Investigation) and are prompted to record and analyze results (e.g., "Is it clearer than before? Are there still particles?", "What conclusions can you draw about the quality of your tap water compared to distilled water?"). The activities ask for explicit evaluation and explanation ("Which filter worked best? Why?", "Analyze Your Results", "What evidence suggests that tap water has been cleaned and treated?"). The Parent Plan/Skills lists include tasks for students to "construct an explanation based on evidence" and to "analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions."

Students collect a water sample, make observations (clear, slightly cloudy, murky, brown), and answer targeted prompts such as "Evidence of Human Impact" and "Evidence of Contamination," which require distinguishing observed facts from possible causes. Students are instructed to "look for evidence" and to avoid guessing, and they are asked to "construct an explanation based on evidence" and to analyze observations to make inferences about impacts on organisms. Students also research organism presence using image searches and note which organisms appear commonly versus uncertain ones, prompting them to confirm findings rather than speculate.

Students conduct web research about John Steinbeck and answer specific factual questions (e.g., Where did Steinbeck grow up? Where did he go to college?), which requires identifying and recording facts from texts. Students respond to a question asking how themes in his literature reflect his life experiences, which asks them to form a reasoned judgment linking research findings to literary themes. Students are also prompted to note similarities between Steinbeck's life and their own, which allows for personal conjecture or speculation.

Students answer Question #1 by identifying Kino's canoe as the only thing of value, working with a clear factual detail from the text. The Parent Plan/Skills section explicitly lists "Draw inferences and/or conclusions," and Question #2 asks students to explain why the canoe is valuable, prompting students to make reasoned inferences. Question #3 and the discussion prompts ask students to analyze phrases like "vagueness of a dream" and "things of the imagination," encouraging students to distinguish between concrete description and more speculative or figurative language.

Students are asked to "draw conclusions based on evidence, reasons, or relevant information" and to "identify and trace the development of an author's argument, point of view, or perspective" in the skills list. Students prepare and conduct a mock trial for Kino and write speeches that require them to "use evidence from the book to argue the case" and "use persuasive techniques and evidence from the story." Part D short-answer questions explicitly ask students to support claims (e.g., stylistic devices) with evidence from the text.

Students are asked to find news stories, record the source and write a 2–3 sentence summary on a Current Events Report page, which requires them to identify key information from a text. The Current Events Report also asks students to record their reactions and answer reflective prompts such as "What did this story reveal about life in the part of Africa that it covered?" and whether the physical environment played a role in the story. The unit notes that questions will often address critical thinking about statistics like life expectancy and literacy rate, which prompts students to engage with data and claims in texts.

Students read designated textbook pages and answer factual questions (e.g., identify the smallest country by area and the largest by population, describe the Nile's impact, and list primary work in Ethiopia). Students complete a comparative table for Northern and Southern Sudan (climate, languages, religions, houses), which requires gathering factual information. Students respond to prompts that ask for causes and effects (e.g., "How might the differences between the north and the south have contributed to civil war in Sudan?" and "How did the civil war in Sudan affect the lives of Sudanese people?"), which asks them to form reasoned judgments based on their research.

Students are required to find current events stories and research background information using the Internet and other sources, and to record citations for each source using the News Report Citation activity page. Students must write news stories or scripts in their own words, include background facts about each country's environment, political and economic systems, and follow rubrics that evaluate the accuracy of background information and the citation of sources. The rubric and citation pages emphasize accurate reporting and attribution of information from research.

The lesson explicitly teaches students to use evidence: it defines evidence and tells students "When something is hard to see, they look for evidence, which are clues that help prove something exists." Activity 1 Question 2 asks students to "Explain why scientists say that air is matter. Give two pieces of evidence from the chapter to support your answer," and the investigation and answer key require students to record observations and explain their reasoning. The Scenario Thinking and "Weather or Climate?" prompts ask students to generate hypothetical outcomes (e.g., what would happen if the atmosphere disappeared), which engages students in speculation.

Students are asked to support their Layer Sorting Challenge placements "with evidence from Chapter 2" and to "instead of guessing, support your answers with facts you learned about each layer's characteristics and functions," which requires using textual evidence to justify claims. Question #3 asks students to imagine a world without the ozone layer and answer "Based on the chapter, how might life on Earth be different?", prompting students to make reasoned inferences from the text. The 3D model and activity pages require students to record "Altitude, Temperature, Unique Characteristics, and Importance," and to explain patterns and reasons, which has students extract and use factual information from the chapter.

Students record direct observations during the collapsing-can experiment (e.g., describing what happened and why the can collapsed), and they analyze a five-day weather data table to identify patterns in air pressure, temperature, wind, and precipitation. The activities ask students to "use evidence from the data to explain changes in weather" and to "support your prediction" for Day 6 using observed patterns, which requires forming reasoned judgments based on the provided data. The reading and Things to Know sections provide factual statements (e.g., definitions of air pressure, density, and the relation between pressure and weather) that students must use in their explanations.

Students are asked to write a hypothesis (surface that will heat most) and later answer "Was your hypothesis correct? Explain why or why not using your data," which requires comparing speculation to observed results. Multiple prompts require students to record data, analyze it (Analyze Your Data questions), and "Explain Your Thinking" using terms like absorption, reflection, and energy. The Mapping Energy activity asks students to "use evidence from your model" to explain which locations absorb or reflect the most energy and to justify energy-level decisions based on surface type and latitude.

Students are repeatedly prompted to "use evidence" from maps and case studies (Weather Front Investigation, Severe Storms Case Study) to explain how storms form and how they are predicted. Activities ask students to analyze and interpret data (snowfall records, weather maps) and to make predictions based on that data, encouraging reasoned judgments (e.g., predict future snowfall, explain why tornado warnings are short). The text also explicitly discusses uncertainty and probabilistic prediction (e.g., tornadoes are difficult to predict far in advance; hurricane paths and strengths can change), giving students examples of tentative or probabilistic claims.

The Climate Data Analysis activity asks students to examine graphs of atmospheric CO2 and global temperature, identify trends, and answer "What evidence from the graphs suggests that human activities are increasing emissions," which requires using data to support a claim (reasoned judgment). The What's in the Air? activities ask students to record observable details from agar dishes (facts) and to identify possible sources and which particles might be air pollution, asking them to explain their thinking (moving from observation to inference). Several prompts ask students to "use evidence to explain," to describe how scientists use data, and to write questions about causes, reinforcing evidence-based reasoning rather than mere speculation.

The lesson explicitly states a factual claim: "Cholera is spread by eating food or drinking water contaminated with bacteria." The text also presents villagers' supernatural explanation (they "thought a witch had brought the disease"), which models speculative explanation. The Investigator activity asks students to dig up background information (geography, culture, history, author) that could be used to support evidence-based conclusions.

Students are asked to research baboons and write an 8–10 sentence museum plaque that explains how baboons live and interact in the wild, which requires gathering and reporting factual information. Students can create a guidebook of five African animals, writing 1–2 sentences and including pictures, which involves identifying and summarizing expository facts. The parent plan lists skills to "synthesize and make logical connections" and to "support those findings with textual evidence," and a discussion question asks students to justify whether Nhamo can survive, prompting reasoned responses based on text and research.

Students read explicit factual statements in the "Things to Know" section (e.g., Aboriginal Australians have lived in Australia for over 60,000 years). Students read a myth (the Rainbow Serpent) and complete a Compare Creation Stories activity that asks them to describe what existed at the beginning of time and how the world came into being. Students read a passage that describes different research methods (written records, archaeological analysis, oral tradition) and are asked discussion questions about how researchers learn about people who lived long ago.

Students read a passage (Activity 2) that contrasts written records with oral tradition and archaeological evidence and explains what scholars can and cannot know from each kind of source. Students complete a 'Written and Non-Written Sources' activity in which they list written and non-written sources and answer questions about what could be learned from each and how objects might be misinterpreted without documentation. The current events journal asks students to find news items, summarize them, and reflect on what the story reveals and how it connects to other information, encouraging consideration of source-based conclusions.

Students are asked to identify and record factual information in several places (reading comprehension questions asking for facts about size, resources, and population; the timeline activity requiring dates of historical events). The Reporter's Notebook explicitly asks students to list "Relevant facts" and to cite "Source," and it also asks for "Possible solutions" which encourages students to separate factual information from proposed responses. The Government Venn diagram and map activity require students to gather concrete factual details (constitution dates, branches, heads of government, geographic features).

Students read Stories from the Billabong and are instructed to "be sure to read the factual information about Australia, its plants and wildlife, and its people that follows each story," and Question 3 asks students to compare scientists' explanations of Uluru with Aboriginal explanations. Activity 1 directs students to research an Australian animal using library/online sources and record habitats, foods, five facts, and adaptations. Activity 2 requires students to write a brief factual summary of a current news item about Aboriginal Australians and then record their personal reaction, separating summary from opinion.

Students answer explicit factual reading questions (e.g., climate and terrain differences, who the first settlers were, sheep-to-person ratio, source of electricity) based on pages 262–263. In the Maori Artifacts activity, students research and record factual details (what the object is, where it was found, age, materials) and then answer an open question asking how the object fits into Maori culture. In the Outdoor Activities activity, students identify natural features that enable activities and compare environments, which requires making causal, reasoned connections between environment and human activity.

Students are asked to do research on a Galápagos animal and fill a field guide or diagram that includes sections for "Interesting Facts," "Habitat," and "How is it well-adapted to its environment," which requires gathering and recording factual information and making evidence-based explanations. The Current Events Report page requires students to write a brief factual summary of a news story and then a separate personal reaction ("What do you think about this story?"), creating a distinction between summary and opinion. The Vacation Planning and Tourism & Village Life pages ask students to list reasons for and against tourism and to make a decision about travel, prompting students to state factual impacts and give judgments about costs and benefits.

The Current Events Report asks students to write a brief factual summary of a news story and separately to "share your reaction," prompting a separation of objective summary and personal response. Activity 1 directs students to use Geography of the World (and optional research sources) to consider the impact of the environment on daily life, which asks students to gather information and form conclusions. Reading questions and mapping activities require students to extract and record factual information (e.g., locations, temperatures, the Antarctic Treaty).

Students are asked to read a definition of "scientific theory" and to consider how the everyday use of the word differs from its use in science, prompting comparison between casual guesses and evidence-based explanations. Students answer questions that require them to identify evidence Wegener used for continental drift (matching rock formations, fossils, coal deposits, glacial evidence), which has them cite research findings that support a conclusion. Parent prompts ask students to explain what a scientific theory means and how it differs from an everyday "theory," encouraging discussion about evidence and support. The sea-floor spreading activity and associated questions ask students to explain why certain rocks are older or newer based on the model, which engages them in using empirical patterns to justify claims.

Students answer questions that ask them to justify choices from reading (e.g., "Which property would be most useful... Why?" and "Based on the reading... which type of rock... easiest to identify? Why?"). Students perform rock and mineral identification activities (using hardness, streak, luster, grain size) and record observations to support a best-guess identification, which requires making reasoned judgments based on evidence. The "Ideas to Think About" prompts (for example, "Can we predict future changes in the Earth?") invite students to generate speculative responses.

Students read explicit factual statements in the "Things to Know" section (e.g., definitions of seismic waves, P- and S-waves) and answer direct factual questions (QUESTION #1 and #2). Students investigate and report on earthquake hazards using external sources and record data for a historical example (e.g., when/where it occurred, lives lost, cost), and they explain how seismic wave observations lead to conclusions about Earth's interior (QUESTION #3). In Option 2, students design a seismograph and must describe how it works and its limitations, requiring them to make evidence-based design judgments.

Students answer direct factual questions (QUESTION #1–#3) that require identifying definitions and concrete reasons (e.g., relative vs. absolute age; why fossils are unlikely in igneous/metamorphic rock). In Activity 1 students reconstruct a disrupted ‘rock column' and are asked to highlight significant events and explain what the remaining parts can tell a scientist, which requires making evidence-based interpretations and judgments. The Parent Plan and Skills list explicitly ask students to construct scientific explanations based on evidence from rock strata and to analyze and interpret data on fossils and rocks.

The skills list asks students to "draw inferences and conclusions" and to "summarize information and determine the importance of information," which engages interpretation of informational text. In Option 1 students read biographies of Tolkien and are asked to write five interview questions and "consider why each question would be an important one," requiring students to use source information to justify choices. In Option 2 students must select an "Interesting Fact" for a collage and explain images that represent Tolkien's life, which asks students to identify and summarize factual information and make connections.

The lesson explicitly tells students that a personal response is different from a summary, noting that a summary "provides facts about the characters and events while avoiding personal reflection." Students are instructed to "support your feelings and thoughts about the book with examples from the text" and may use direct quotes and events as evidence. The rubric includes a "Textual Evidence" column and criteria for comprehension and interpretation, directing students to provide quotes and references to support their claims.

Students read a passage and answer a question noting factual Harappan achievements (e.g., paved roads, sewer systems, trade) and an explicit uncertain statement: "No one knows what happened to them, but some historians suspect environmental changes may have played a role," which presents speculation and historian judgment. Students complete timeline and map activities that require placing dated events and geographic facts (e.g., Aryan Settlement 1700 BC, Compilation of the Vedas 1500 BC). Students compare Hinduism and Buddhism using textual details (e.g., caste acceptance vs rejection), which requires synthesizing claims drawn from the readings.

Students read specified pages and answer direct factual questions (e.g., dates and locations of first settlements, the Mandate of Heaven, Han dynasty contributions, and the purpose of the Grand Canal). Students create a timeline and label historical dates, which requires identifying and recording factual information. Students summarize dynasty accomplishments and respond to reflection prompts ("Would you have liked to live in China during this period?"), and they interpret the Tao Te Ching passage and state whether they agree and why, producing judgments and opinions.

Students read explicit factual statements in the "Things to Know" section (e.g., Silk Road route, Chinese inventions, invention of printing) and answer comprehension questions that require recalling facts (e.g., clothing differences, city vs. village populations). Some questions and answers use hedged language that signals non-factual claims, for example: "How do historians think that chess arrived in China?" with the answer "Chess may have been brought to China from India by Buddhist missionaries," and "What might an ancient Chinese Buddhist say..." with the answer that suffering is caused by wanting things. These items expose students to factual claims and to statements framed as possibility or historians' judgments.

Students read informational texts about biomes (Exploring Ecology pp. 1-7 and provided web resources) and collect and record specific ecosystem data in Survey Table and two ecosystem tables. Students are prompted to provide evidence for relationships (e.g., "What is evidence of this dependence?") and to write short paragraphs summarizing findings that include biome, location, notable biotic/abiotic factors, and major characteristics. Students are asked to consider causes and effects (e.g., how changes in food supply or water might affect survival and competition) which requires using research findings to support ideas.

Students read explanatory text about photosynthesis, biomass, trophic levels, and energy transfer and answer factual and application questions (e.g., percent energy loss, role of decomposers). Activity 1 has students compute biomass and trace energy needs through food webs, requiring them to analyze numerical data. Activity 2 has students model energy transfer, compare measured percentages to the expected ~10% rule, and revise their model, which requires making and evaluating reasoned judgments. Discussion prompts ask students to consider abiotic factors and hypothetical advantages, prompting inference and explanation.

Students read explicit definitional material ("Things to Know") that presents factual statements about niches, competition, and types of symbiosis. Students answer guided questions that require explanatory reasoning (e.g., why a generalized feeder has an advantage, what happens when species compete). In the activity students must evaluate whether organisms would survive in a different environment and "Explain your answer," which asks them to form and justify reasoned judgments and to consider hypothetical outcomes.

The Skills section explicitly asks students to "analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions," and the Reading and Questions require students to read texts and answer comprehension questions that summarize causes and differences (e.g., primary vs. secondary succession). Activities require students to consult online sources, select images, arrange stages in order, and write captions or descriptions that explain observations and relationships among organisms and environments.

Students are asked to gather before/after and contemporary pictures and to write descriptions explaining why changes have occurred, which requires using evidence to support explanations. The Parent Plan skills explicitly list that students will "analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions, and develop the relationship between evidence and explanation." Activities require students to identify the type of succession, match stages of succession with graphics, and write a prediction paragraph about the ecosystem 20–30 years in the future.

Students read specific explanatory text and "Things to Know" statements about the carbon cycle and answer direct comprehension questions (Questions 1–5) that require identifying processes (photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition) and where carbon is stored. Students create a short story, poem, or comic in which they portray a carbon atom's journey, which may involve imagining scenarios (e.g., being trapped in oil and later released) and thus produce speculative narrative. The Parent Plan discussion questions prompt students to discuss cause-and-effect ideas (e.g., how lack of oxygen affects decomposition) that require applying factual knowledge to explain outcomes.

Students are asked to gather information from Exploring Ecology and other sources and to "analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions, and develop the relationship between evidence and explanation" (Parent Plan Skills). In Options 1 and 2 students predict results of specific changes to abiotic factors and record expected outcomes for vegetation, using sample answer keys as models. The lesson prompts students to consider questions such as "How do we know adaptations have taken place?" and asks them to make inferences and reasonable predictions based on gathered information.

Students write hypotheses and predictions before running the experiment, which elicits speculation about outcomes. Students make daily measurements and color observations of the plants, producing empirical facts to record. Students compare results with their predictions and answer reflective 'Questions to Ponder,' and the Parent Plan explicitly states students should 'analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions, and develop the relationship between evidence and explanation,' supporting practice in drawing reasoned judgments from data.

Students collect quantitative measurements in the slime investigation (zeroing the scale, recording Cup Weight, Weight of Cup with Item, Item-Only Weight, and calculating total differences) and record a hypothesis before testing, giving them factual data and an initial speculation to compare. The activity asks students to "Speculate about any differences in weight" and answer what might happen if slime is left out, prompting explicit speculation and prediction. The Parent Plan and Skills sections state that students will "Analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions," and Activity 2 asks students to develop food webs and represent flows of matter and energy, requiring interpretation of empirical ideas about energy loss.

Students are directed to research an extinct organism using books and the Internet, recording its food sources, ecosystem details, and "reasons for its extinction." They must produce a paragraph describing "how the extinction could have been prevented," including recommendations and examples of adaptations (explicitly asking for hypothesis/speculation). The Parent Plan and Skills sections ask students to "analyze and evaluate information from a scientifically literate viewpoint" and to "challenge and critique" their own positions, which supports evaluating research-based conclusions.

Students carry out a hands-on investigation in the pottery option where they dig soil, sieve and wet it, test whether it can be molded, observe drying behavior, and are asked to judge "Based on this investigation, how much clay do you think your sample contained?". Students are prompted to discuss what food and artwork can tell us about a culture and to compare 12th century Korean culture with their own, which requires forming inferences from observed or read evidence.

Students are prompted to write four questions of specified types including a prediction question (speculation), a fact-based question whose answer can be taken straight from the book (fact), and an opinion/judgment question. The introduction asks students to discuss what makes a good question and to distinguish questions that require information taken directly from the text versus those asking for opinion, comparison, prediction, or personal connection. The activity requires students to provide answers or possible answers to each question type, practicing extraction of factual answers and formulation of speculative or opinion responses.

Students research Linda Sue Park by reading bios and watching interviews, taking notes on the information she shares. Students answer specific questions that ask for factual details (e.g., where her parents are from, when her first poem was published) and also respond to inference questions (e.g., Why do you think Linda Sue Park chose to write fictional books about Korean culture?; What do you think Linda is trying to teach readers in A Single Shard?). Students write a short paragraph describing how the author's experiences and relationships influenced her writing, which asks them to form reasoned judgments based on the sources they read and watched.

Students are asked to explain reasons (e.g., "Why do you think Min laughs..." and "Ask your child to explain an opportunity he has been given"), which requires making inferences. The Parent Plan repeatedly instructs students to "defend his answer with a logical explanation" and to "provide evidence from the text to support his conclusions." The mini-book activity directs students to record how each opportunity benefited Tree-ear, prompting students to cite text-based support for claims about characters and events.

Students are asked to make and then evaluate a prediction about Tree-ear's journey ("Ask your child to explain his prediction..."), which requires them to generate and later compare speculation to the text. The Skills and several activity instructions require students to "justify interpretations of literature through sustained use of examples and textual evidence" and to "support your descriptions with examples from the text, including the characters' thoughts, words, and actions." The Relationship Web/Words activities require students to select descriptive words or write sentences and then support those choices with textual examples, promoting evidence-based interpretation.

Students read fact boxes and record concrete data (form of government, adult literacy rates, life expectancy, major industries) on the Governments of Asia data chart. Students create graphs (bar graphs, scatter-type literacy vs life-expectancy plots) and answer specific data-based questions such as which countries have the highest/lowest literacy or life expectancy. Students are prompted to record impressions or other observations in a Notes column, and to decide whether any countries have metrics "very close" to the United States, which requires comparing numerical evidence to a criterion.

Students are directed to record the news source, list countries and significant people, and write 2-3 sentence summaries of articles, which requires extracting factual information. Students attach or cite original articles and are given multiple reputable news sources to consult, providing material for evidence-based conclusions. The journal prompts students to analyze what a story reveals about government, economy, culture, and environment, which asks them to form interpretations based on the text. The activity also asks for a personal reaction section where students state their opinions or emotional responses.

Students read assigned pages about the Indian subcontinent and answer direct factual questions (e.g., origins of Pakistan and Bangladesh; religions originating in India; crops of Sri Lanka). Students perform a hands-on monsoon experiment measuring water absorption in different soils, record data on ‘Results' pages, and answer reflection questions about which soils could lead to flooding. Students discuss with a parent how monsoon winds create rain and the impacts on agriculture and communities, explaining cause-and-effect relationships based on readings and observations.

Students read pages 196–201 of Geography of the World that present factual information about maritime Southeast Asia (countries, wildlife, climate, history). Question #1 asks students to identify areas at risk from typhoons and explain why people live there, requiring students to use text information to provide a reasoned judgment. The "Cultures of Indonesia and the Philippines" activity asks students to cut out and record factual text boxes (history, languages, religions, ethnic identities) and to write connections between culture and the environment, which asks them to draw conclusions from the provided facts.

Students make and record direct observational data in Parts 1 and 2 (how long until they feel heat from the bulb), which provide factual observations. Part 3 explicitly asks students to predict whether they will ever feel heat from the lamp at a distance and to justify their answer, which elicits speculation. The activity and Parent Plan provide explanatory answers about conduction, convection, and radiation that present reasoned explanations linking observations to scientific mechanisms.

Students make predictions and record test results in the Potassium Iodide activity, gathering observational data (e.g., color changes) and writing explanations for those results. The Skills section explicitly asks students to analyze evidence to explain observations, make inferences and predictions, and develop relationships between evidence and explanation. The reading questions prompt students to draw explanatory conclusions from text (for example, inferring past biomass from fossil fuel abundance).

Students read explicit factual statements and definitions (e.g., photosynthesis produces oxygen; cellular respiration requires oxygen; the photosynthesis and respiration equations are provided). Students answer analytical questions and a scenario prompt that require them to draw conclusions (e.g., "Why do you think there is enough oxygen…?", the Scenario Response about autotrophs stopping oxygen production). The lesson includes a "Challenging Question" that asks students to consider possible benefits of increased carbon dioxide, prompting speculative reasoning.

Students are asked to make predictions on the Observing Decomposition page and later record results, which requires them to generate speculation and then collect factual observations. The experiment directs students to record daily observations (facts) and compare them to their predictions, and Activity 2 has students survey decomposers and record observations about their environment. The scenario question (and parent sample answer) asks students to explain what they would do and why, which asks for reasoning based on observed or described outcomes.

Students are asked to "Research, evaluate, and apply agricultural techniques" and to look for university (.edu) and scientific/research organization sources, which requires assessing source credibility. The project requires students to gather information about sustainable farming methods and then write explanatory labels for at least two crops or animals describing the techniques used, which asks students to use research findings to support design choices. Parent guidance instructs students to find "solid, useful information" and to get help when technical results are difficult, implying evaluation of claims in texts.

Students read two contrasting news articles about the same event and record how Sam Hughes is portrayed, noting specific examples of word choice, selection/omission, headlines, and statistics as evidence of bias. Students read an article about U.S. propaganda leaflets and answer guided questions about the techniques used, the purpose, and whether the leaflets were convincing. Students watch advertisements and identify propaganda techniques, intended audience, and judge effectiveness on a handout.

Students practice evaluating websites for purpose, authority, currency, and objectivity (Activity 4) and are prompted to rate those criteria and note bias. Students collect and record supporting details for different stakeholders' opinions (Activity 5) using a gathering grid or note cards, and they are instructed to document sources on a Works Cited page. The note-card guidelines emphasize citing sources and avoiding plagiarism, which directs students to attend to evidence behind claims.

Students are instructed to support arguments with credible evidence and to include facts, statistics, research, expert opinions, examples, and quotes in body paragraphs. The Parent Plan and rubric require students to "support the main idea or ideas... with facts, details, examples, and explanations from multiple authoritative sources." Students are also directed to explain reasoning—"Explain the 'why' and the 'because' of your argument"—and to connect research to claims using transitions.

The Parent Plan lists that students will "write research reports that pose relevant questions... and support the main idea with facts, details, examples, and explanations from multiple authoritative sources" and "synthesize research into a written or an oral presentation... summarize findings, and use evidence to support conclusions." Student activities require explaining multiple points of view (poster) and presenting a position with persuasive evidence (PowerPoint, movie, propaganda). Students are instructed to reference the "Presentation" rubric and to add information that helps the audience understand the visual aid.

Students answer specific factual reading questions (e.g., identify the Minoan civilization, dates, and Mycenaean crafts) and complete activities that involve reading historical descriptions and viewing artifacts/videos. Students read and/or watch the legend of Theseus and the Minotaur and are asked to create a maze and to discuss what the myth might say about Minoan civilization, which engages with myth versus historical description. The text also notes uncertainty about the Greek Dark Age ("we know very little about the period"), which introduces the idea that some historical statements reflect limited evidence or interpretation.

Students read informational pages and answer factual questions (e.g., Q&A about city-states, Sparta, and Persian battles) and add facts to maps and timelines, which requires identifying concrete information from the text. In Activity 2 and the Venn diagram, students compare and contrast Athens and Sparta using details from the readings, which practices distinguishing similarities and differences (fact-based categorization). In Activity 4 (Option 2) students list advantages and disadvantages of Athenian direct democracy and representative democracy and answer whether Athens' system would suit the United States, and in Activity 4 (Option 1) students write diary entries imagining actions in each system—these require students to form reasoned judgments using sources and to produce speculative perspectives.

Students are asked in Day 2 Activity 2 to "blend what you have learned from your reading and your own imagination" and to "take your best guess about the timing of different activities," which encourages using researched details and making speculative guesses. The Kid's Day activity also requires students to "refer back to your readings to help you determine a detail for each part of the day that would be historically accurate," which requires use of facts from sources. In Activity 3 students read summaries of historical figures and complete pages asking what the person was "best known for" and "why the person's ideas/contributions are important today," which asks students to form reasoned judgments based on their research.

Students read specified textbook pages about Alexander the Great and answer direct factual questions (e.g., location of Macedonia, how Alexander became king). Students create a monument and must explain "why" Alexander is considered great and justify design choices, which asks them to form and support reasoned judgments based on the reading. Students place dated timeline cards, practicing use of factual chronological information from the text.

Students complete Activity 1 comparing the Romulus and Remus myth, the Troy-origin story, and archaeological explanations using a chart that asks "How likely is this theory to be true?" and to note how each theory explains Rome's founding. The activity and sidebar prompt students to think of other exaggerated or embellished historical stories, encouraging evaluation of legends versus artifact-based accounts. In the Julius Caesar activities, students gather information from readings and videos, create pros/cons lists, and prepare persuasive speeches that require weighing evidence about Caesar and Brutus.

Students answer focused factual questions in the Reading and Questions section (e.g., identifying Augustus, S.P.Q.R., the use of Roman roads, Romanization, and the Pax Romana). Students research and compare multiple emperors in Option 2, listing accomplishments, challenges, and leadership qualities and then deciding which leader was more effective, which requires making reasoned judgments based on research. Students write a diary entry in Option 1 that asks them to infer Augustus's thoughts and lessons learned, engaging them in speculative or interpretive writing.

Students are instructed to read texts and mark important ideas, put an exclamation point beside surprising facts, and put a question mark beside information they don't understand, which has them identify notable facts and uncertainties. Students complete a "Religion in Rome" chart that asks them to record key features, who practiced each religion, and whether the Roman government discouraged practices, prompting students to use evidence to support answers. Students research two social roles and then write letters, illustrations, or scripts comparing housing, education, food, work, and daily life, which requires gathering factual details and drawing conclusions from sources.

Students read nonfiction articles ("The Fall of the Roman Empire" and its sections "External Causes," "Internal Causes," and "Conclusion") and answer evaluative questions such as whether repeated attacks caused Rome's downfall, prompting them to weigh explanations. In Activity 2 students cut out listed factors and sort them into Internal vs External categories, requiring them to classify causes based on the text. In Activity 3 (Option 2) students read New Testament passages about persecution and analyze the authors' messages and how serious persecution appears, which asks them to interpret claims in primary texts.

Students are asked to research and "explain how ancient Greek and Roman governments influenced the 21st century" (Main Course option), which requires gathering information and making reasoned claims based on research. Students may write a news article reporting changes in government or a short essay and are instructed to brainstorm, draft, and polish their writing, activities that involve distinguishing accurate facts from interpretation. The rubric explicitly evaluates whether project parts "present accurate information" and whether writing is "well-written" with evidence of research and organization.

Students complete activities that separate prediction, observation, and explanation (for example, the Coin Challenge has 'Expectation', 'Observation', and 'Explanation' sections where students state what they think will happen, record what actually happened, and use Newton's first law to explain it). In the Rubber Ball Ramp activity students record measured distances and construct a graph from experimental data, then draw conclusions about mass, force, and acceleration. The Balloon Rocket activity asks students to describe the forces observed and to 'use all three of Newton's laws to explain' the rocket's motion, linking evidence to reasoned explanation.

Students collect empirical data (distance and time) and use that data to calculate average velocity and average acceleration. Students plot displacement-time and velocity-time graphs and are asked to decide whether the object moved at a constant or irregular velocity/acceleration using their calculations and graphs. The lesson asks students to identify potential improvements or issues with their experiment and to explain factors that may have made velocity and acceleration inconsistent, prompting students to form explanations based on their data.

Students are prompted to make Predictions, Observe, and Explain in the accelerometer activity, which separates speculative prediction from recorded observations and explanatory reasoning. The reading and video tasks (including the Apollo 15 experiment) provide research-based findings that students must use to answer explanation questions (e.g., why a feather and hammer fall differently on Earth). The bucket-swing activity asks students to describe forces from two frames of reference, encouraging them to contrast an observer's descriptive account with an explanation grounded in Newton's laws.

Students are asked to make predictions (e.g., "What do you think will happen when you add a second pulley?") and to record measurements and compute work using collected data (e.g., using a spring scale, recording force in newtons, and calculating Work = Force × distance). Several analysis prompts ask students to interpret their data (e.g., "What do these results mean? Do they surprise you?" and compare measured forces across trials and machines). The Parent Plan also encourages students to guess forces before measuring and then check those guesses against experimental results.

Students read pages 9–15 of D'Aulaires' Book of Greek Myths and are asked to "Summarize the Greek creation story in two sentences," which has them extract and restate factual content from the text. Question #1 asks students, "Why do you think the Greeks chose to worship gods that looked and acted like perfect people...?" which requires students to offer speculative explanations. Question #3 prompts students to compare other cultures' creation stories and "Explain," which asks them to produce reasoned judgments about similarities and differences based on their knowledge or research. The Parent Plan discussion about translation asks students to "use our thinking skills to form the most likely translation," which asks for reasoning about language evidence.

Students read factual background sections labeled "Things to Know" and specific pages (1-14) that present dates, definitions, and historical events, which requires them to identify facts. Students answer open-ended questions (Question #3 and #4) that ask them to explain connections (e.g., how violence might be connected to the rise of feudalism or how instability increased church power), prompting them to make reasoned judgments based on the reading. Students also write imagined diary entries (Option 2) that require them to create speculative perspectives about how medieval people might have thought or felt.

Students read factual passages and answer direct factual questions (e.g., who held power, why a king needed a son, who could poke fun at the king). In Option 1, students complete a two-column comparison of 'Before the Magna Carta' and 'After the Magna Carta' that asks them to state who made laws, whether the king had to obey laws, and what recourse people had. In Option 2, students generate word clouds from the Magna Carta and other documents and answer analytic questions about which words stand out and what groups or ideas the text focuses on, prompting inference from textual evidence.

Students read pages 65–90 that state factual information (for example, that the bubonic plague was spread by fleas on infected rats and mice and that the plague killed about half of Europe). Students answer comprehension questions that require recalling those facts and describing roles of the church, towns, and villages. In Activity 2 (Option 1) students roll a die to model plague deaths and then analyze the impact on labor, defense, and specialized roles, using that simulated data to draw conclusions about societal effects; the "Ideas to Think About" prompts ask students to consider social structures and their purposes, inviting interpretive thinking.

Students read labeled factual summaries in the "Things to Know" section and in answer keys (e.g., statements about the Church's power, relics, and the start of the Crusades). Students explain why groups were considered dangerous and what consequences they faced in the "Dissent and the Church" activity, requiring them to make reasoned judgments based on the reading. Students imagine and write perspectives in the Crusades activity (responding as a peasant and as a Muslim), which prompts speculative responses about motivations and reactions.

Students are asked to survey at least four people, record repeated responses with stars or check marks, and then identify the most significant events, discoveries, or ideas (Activity 2), which asks them to use collected information to support a choice. The "Things to Know" section explains that historians often name periods in hindsight after seeing what proved important, prompting students to consider how later evaluation differs from contemporary views. The Naming Our Own Era activity page asks students to list important items, pick the most significant, provide descriptive adjectives, and answer whether it is easier to analyze an era while living in it or after hundreds of years, encouraging reflection on evidence versus perspective.

Students read explanatory text (Light and the Eye) and answer factual comprehension questions about refraction, reflection, and lens types. Students perform hands-on experiments (Lens Bend Demonstration, camera obscura, Reappearing/Disappearing Penny) and answer observation questions about what happens to rays and focal points. Students complete the "Shhh! Here's How It's Done" worksheet where they describe what really happened, explain why it looked like something else, and draw diagrams showing angles of vision.

Students read explanatory passages and answer direct questions about observable facts (e.g., definitions of the visible spectrum, how objects reflect color, and why the sky is blue). Students conduct experiments (Rainbow Tray, Spectrum Peek, Why Is the Sky Blue?, Ink Blots) in which they record observations, form hypotheses, and draw conclusions about what the data show. Several activity pages ask students to write conclusions and compare observations to expectations, which requires them to make reasoned judgments based on experimental findings.

Students examine a detailed map of a medieval manor and record specific observations in labeled categories (Jobs, Clothing, Homes, Inventions & Technological Advancements, Military Defense, Comparisons to Neighborhoods Today), which requires identifying factual details. Students read an expository passage about feudalism that states causes, roles, and historical spread, and they are asked to identify peasants/knights/lords on the map and explain relationships, which prompts interpretation of informational text. Students write 3–4 sentence commentaries from the perspectives of a knight, a lord, and a peasant and discuss advantages and disadvantages of feudalism, which requires forming judgments and perspectives based on the provided information.

QUESTION #1 asks why authors sometimes express uncertainty about details (e.g., Columbus's birthplace) and the provided answer explains that historians re-examine evidence and change interpretations when new evidence appears. Option 3 of Activity 2 asks students to analyze connections among motivations and to write the ways ideas might be connected, which requires forming reasoned judgments about causes and relationships. The reading-and-questions task requires students to add timeline/map cards and to cite specific historical events, providing factual anchors for discussion.

Students read specific historical passages and answer questions that require them to summarize causes and characterize relationships (e.g., questions about Cahokia's decline and the relationships between Incas/Aztecs and conquered peoples). Students complete compare-and-contrast activities (charts and Venn diagrams) using textual and map evidence to draw conclusions about similarities and differences between European kingdoms and American empires. In the Cahokia option, students take notes on film content and are prompted to record "Questions that Remain," encouraging them to distinguish observed details from what they still do not know.

Students read close informational text (pages 20-35 and specific pages referenced) and answer factual questions about events (e.g., why Columbus called people "Indians," what drew explorers north), which requires extracting facts from the text. In Activity 4 (Spanish Conquest) students read pages 26-29, identify "clues" that might explain Spanish success, record factors, and mark those they consider particularly significant, which asks them to weigh evidence and form reasoned judgments based on the reading. In Activity 2 (Dissatisfaction among the Crew) students use the Countdown box and the reading to list reasons for crew discontent and then write a journal entry or skit that requires using textual information to support a decision or perspective, blending evidence-based reasoning with imagined viewpoints.

Students read pages 36-51 and answer Question 3, which asks why researchers disagree about population numbers and explains that available evidence is imprecise and incomplete. In Option 1 (Contact and Loss) students compute deaths using a range of population and mortality estimates and are told that scholars have debated widely differing estimates, demonstrating uncertainty in research findings. In the debate preparation students are instructed to list supporting facts for both affirmative and negative positions and to prepare rebuttals, requiring them to gather and use evidence when making claims.

Students read chapters from Newton at the Center that present Copernicus's findings (e.g., that the Earth orbits the Sun and turns on its axis) and answer comprehension questions asking them to name discoveries and to describe common 15th–16th century beliefs. In Activity 2 students list characteristics of medieval and modern thinking and identify factors that led to the shift toward empirical, observation-based science. The Things to Know and Parent Plan text emphasize the scientific method (observation, prediction, experimentation, measurement) and contrast reliance on religious/Biblical authority with empirical reasoning.

Students perform Galileo's falling-bodies experiment (Activity 2) and observe empirical results, which provides practice identifying factual, observable outcomes. In Activity 3 Option 1 students research modern scientific controversies, interview people, and write a 200-word letter that requires them to form and support a reasoned judgment based on research. In Activity 3 Option 2 students read primary-source documents (Kepler, Galileo, Church statements) and answer questions about arguments and interpretations, and they are explicitly asked to speculate about Galileo's feelings, which prompts consideration of conjecture versus evidence-based claims.

Students read explicit factual statements (e.g., definitions in "Things to Know" and answers to "What is the Sun made of?" and "How hot is the surface of the Sun?") that present verifiable facts. Students plot and analyze sunspot data from 1950–2023, calculate average intervals between maximum years, and use those calculations to decide whether the pattern suggests a regular cycle—an exercise in forming a reasoned judgment based on research findings. Challenge and discussion prompts ask students to predict whether 2030 will be a maximum or minimum and to discuss data reliability since 1750, which elicits speculation and evaluation of evidence.

Students read informational texts and answer direct factual questions (e.g., "What are satellites used for?" and differences between geostationary and polar orbits), showing practice identifying factual information. Students analyze satellite-derived topographic maps and explain that colors represent elevation, which involves interpreting evidence from a text/graphic. In the Topographic Map activity, students consider what their feature would be made of and match colors to elements or compounds using reflectance curves, which asks them to make reasoned judgments or hypotheses based on spectral data.

Students are asked to read specific informational pages (pp. 17-19 and 27) and answer content questions that require citing factual details (e.g., Mercury's temperature ranges, why Venus was called Earth's twin, why Mars lacks liquid water). One question explicitly asks students to evaluate the label 'twin' for Venus and to justify that judgment with reasons drawn from evidence about Venus's heat, atmosphere, and lack of water. The Planetary Passport activity has students record and compare measurable characteristics (diameter, density, orbital/rotational periods, temperatures) and shade boxes for traits planets share with Earth, which has students distinguish factual similarities and differences.

Students read text that includes clear factual statements (e.g., composition of gas giants, ring divisions, Callisto as most heavily cratered) and also read interpretive language attributed to scientists (e.g., "They think that early in its history, the planet was hit by something really big, tipping it over."). Students answer direct questions that require reporting facts and scientists' interpretations (e.g., "What do scientists think happened to make Uranus tilt onto its side?"). Students also compare and analyze planetary data in the "Planetary Passport" and create their own questions on the board-game cards, which invites forming questions based on readings.

Students read specified pages and answer direct factual questions (e.g., which dwarf planets were once classified as major planets; what makes Haumea unique; how Ceres differs), showing practice identifying and recording facts. Students complete the "Planetary Passport" and board-game cards by researching and entering quantitative and descriptive data (diameter, distance, orbital/rotational periods, moons, temperature), which requires locating and using factual information. A parent note flags an author's claim about asteroid impacts and suggests discussing differing views, and a discussion question asks students to justify why a newly found object would be classified as a dwarf planet, prompting students to give a reasoned judgment based on criteria.

The Parent Plan Skills list explicitly tells students to "Distinguish between fact and opinion in oral presentations and media messages," which directs student practice in separating factual statements from opinions. Activity 2 (Media Awareness) has students collect advertisements, identify the persuasive techniques used, and write or role-play ads, giving students opportunities to judge claims in real-world texts. The lesson text contains speculative wording (e.g., "He may have gotten inspiration..."), which students could identify as speculation when comparing statements about the author.

Students are asked to "List two ways the narrator says he knows the little prince made it home," which requires identifying the narrator's supporting evidence for a claim. Students must write a persuasive poem or drawing "to persuade the fox" and "explain why you agree with the narrator" or not, which asks them to choose and defend reasons. Students are prompted to paraphrase major ideas and to "offer persuasive evidence to validate arguments and conclusions," indicating practice in using evidence to support judgments.

Students answer explicit factual questions (QUESTION #1-#4) about causes and events such as why Henry VIII formed the Church of England and what indulgences were. In Activity 2 they compare and contrast the Catholic Church's claims with Martin Luther's objections, writing Luther's perspectives in response to specific church statements. Activity 4 asks students to consult multiple sources to write a biographical poem about Martin Luther, requiring them to synthesize research findings. Activity 3 asks students to imagine consequences for people with dissenting beliefs, which has them generate speculative scenarios.

Students read specified chapters and answer direct comprehension questions (e.g., Questions #1 and #2 ask for concrete factual information about Protestants under Mary Tudor and Mary's nickname). Students reread passages describing the coronation procession and use symbolic details from the text to plan a gift and write about its meaning, which requires making reasoned interpretations grounded in the reading. Students are also invited to imagine what Elizabeth might have meant to people and to create a gift, an activity that involves speculative thinking based on historical cues.

Students read Chapter 8 and answer direct factual questions (e.g., Q1 asks how people were alerted and Q3 asks how the English defeated the Armada), so students practice extracting factual information from a text. Students also respond to an evaluative question (Q4) asking which line in Elizabeth's speech is most powerful, which elicits interpretation or opinion. In Activity 2 students run a simulation and then are prompted to think about how tactics and weather changed odds, requiring them to form reasoned judgments based on the simulated evidence.

The Option 2 activity asks students to choose four adjectives describing Elizabeth I and "identify one concrete example" from her life for each adjective, and it instructs students to be "prepared to defend your choices" by explaining how each example illustrates the quality. The epitaph (Option 1) requires students to "decide on the three accomplishments" they think are most significant and to write a short summary of her leadership, prompting students to select and justify claims about her reign. The comprehension questions ask students to recall concrete facts (e.g., dates, events, causes of economic change), which provides factual material students can use as evidence.

Students compare specific historical claims in Activity 1 by placing statements (e.g., printing press allowed wider information distribution; Age of Discovery expanded world knowledge) into a Medieval vs. Modern chart and consult an answer key that presents factual descriptions. In Activity 2, students draw lines and write connections that explain causal relationships (e.g., increased Spanish wealth making Spain a rival), practicing making reasoned judgments about how themes interact. The discussion questions ask students to form and explain opinions about historical significance and whether the present will be viewed as a time of great change, which encourages speculative thinking.

Students read Anderson's text and answer explicit factual questions (e.g., identify factors that influenced culture in da Vinci's time and whether his experiments worked). In Activity 1 students categorize inventions into technology types and then answer why differences exist across centuries, prompting them to give reasons for observed trends. The Parent Plan invites students to argue classifications (artifact vs technique) and to share the rationale they used, which requires them to provide supporting reasoning for their choices.

Students are asked to write a paragraph about an object's inventor and the date of invention (Part 1), which requires gathering and reporting factual information. In Part 3 students may investigate the tests and trials associated with developing the device and determine whether it was based on experimentation and observation or was an accidental discovery, which asks them to consider research findings when explaining origin. The discussion prompts ask students to rate inventions as beneficial or harmful and justify why, which requires students to form and explain reasoned judgments based on their investigation. The answer key notes competing claims (e.g., some believe the barometer was developed by another inventor), which brings up differing accounts that could be speculative.

Students are prompted to research 20th- and 21st-century technologies using trusted sources and to "back up her claim with evidence" when explaining whether a technology is a necessity or a luxury. Students must answer whether a technological design "solved a societal problem or was a problem introduced by technology," requiring them to use research to form a reasoned judgment. Activity prompts (e.g., consider if it improved survival, reduced mortality, or saved time) guide students to gather factual information and use it to justify their evaluations.

Students read specific pages about da Vinci's inventions and are asked to evaluate each design using a rubric that requires a "Rating" and "Evidence" column. Students are instructed to "use the information given to you in the text" and to "explain the reason for your choice," which asks them to support judgments with textual evidence. Activities require students to assess scientific principles, risks, benefits, constraints, and testing protocols and to revise evaluations after building models, encouraging evidence-based reasoning.

Students are asked to research contemporary designs using provided websites and to complete evaluation pages that include columns for "Rating" and "Evidence" and rows for Scientific Principles, Risks, Benefits, Constraints/Limitations, and Testing Protocols. Students are instructed to "research the need or problem" (Step 2) and to "examine current solutions, explore other options, and come up with your own ideas," which requires gathering supporting information. The activities ask students to "evaluate" designs and to "review the evaluation process," prompting students to cite evidence and weigh improvements over time.

Students reread specified pages about Leonardo da Vinci while ‘‘keeping in mind the challenges that da Vinci faced and how constraints and failure were often a part of what he was trying to accomplish,'' which engages them with text about historical claims and context. Students conduct iterative tests and use the provided activity table to record Trial Results, Results (Successful), Reason, and Modification Recommendations, requiring them to state reasons grounded in their experimental findings. Students test and evaluate solutions (Step 6) and prepare notes discussing how solutions meet needs and trade-offs (Step 7), which asks them to form and communicate judgments based on their testing data.

Students are asked to research bridge designs using specified websites and to record possible solutions and evidence on Engineering Protocol activity pages. The Evaluation Protocol requires students to rate criteria (Scientific Principles, Risks, Benefits, Constraints/Limitations, Testing Protocols) and provide evidence for those ratings. The unit test asks students to evaluate da Vinci's camera obscura by explaining scientific principles, risks, benefits, constraints, and testing protocols and to give ratings with evidence. The project rubric and Phase 3 testing require students to test prototypes, analyze results, and use data to generate redesign criteria.

Students are instructed to take notes on important information and unfamiliar words and to "summarize and determine the importance of information" (Skills list), and to decide which information to emphasize in oral or written summaries. Students answer guided questions about main ideas, details, and what a graphic shows and then give a 2-minute oral summary of page 163 that includes the main idea and what the graph represents. Students summarize procedural steps (how to draw an ellipse) in writing or orally and have a partner follow those steps, practicing selection and communication of key factual details.

Students are asked to read specific pages and take notes on information they think may be important and unfamiliar words, which trains them to monitor and evaluate text content. The skills list explicitly includes "Summarize and determine the importance of information," and questions ask students to explain how spectroscopy determines elements and why Newton's experimental approach was revolutionary, requiring them to restate research-based explanations. The parent/teacher discussion question "Is it true that there are only seven colors in a rainbow?" prompts students to evaluate a common claim against evidence.

Students are asked to "describe the event as it is described in the book," which requires them to write a factual summary of the event. Students are asked to take notes on what each person thought about the event and to write headlines from each person's perspective, which has them generate and express differing opinions or viewpoints. The parent discussion prompt "What do you think would have happened..." asks students to offer hypothetical answers, prompting speculative thinking.

Students read Chapter 21 and a NASA page and are asked to take notes, answer comprehension questions (e.g., explaining why a roof blows off in a hurricane) that require using Bernoulli's principle as an evidence-based explanation. Students perform a chosen demonstration, record materials and procedures, and complete a Conclusions/Inferences section asking how the demonstration explains flight. The Parent Plan requires students to deliver an oral summary with inferences and conclusions, indicating practice in forming conclusions from texts and demonstrations.

Students are asked to review their highlights/notes and compare them to the "Things to Know" and "Readings and Questions" sections to identify main ideas and key facts (Activity 1). The unit test and review questions ask for factual answers (e.g., speed of light, which of Newton's laws explains the Moon's orbit) and about nonfiction features like headings and graphics (Activity 6, Part A). In planning and writing the essay, students gather observations, examples, quotations, and personal experiences to support a thesis about how Newton affected their town, which requires making and supporting reasoned judgments (Outlining Newton and Activity 4).

Students complete a scavenger-hunt worksheet that requires them to look up concrete facts in Geography of the World (e.g., countries that use the euro, the administrative center of the EU, and the number of EU member countries). Students answer open-ended discussion questions that ask them to explain causes (for example, why adults over 60 make up a sizable portion of Europe's population), which requires using reading information to form reasoned explanations. The Life Application interview task asks students to write 3–5 open-ended questions and avoid leading yes/no questions, prompting students to gather firsthand information and form judgments from responses.

Students are asked to read informational pages and fill the "Quick Guide" with objective details such as population, official language(s), and form of government, which requires extracting factual information from the text. The Geography, Natural Resources, and the Economy activity asks students to connect geographic features (forests, fjords, lakes) to specific industries, requiring students to form reasoned judgments about cause-and-effect based on the reading. The cultural change prompt asks students to identify a cultural change and decide whether it resulted from diffusion, invention, or innovation, prompting students to make interpretive judgments grounded in the text.

Students read informational texts and watch a video about the U.K. and Parliament and answer direct factual questions (e.g., number of MPs, who leads government). Students complete activity pages that ask for factual information about population, language, government, geography, and climate. Students are asked to analyze how geography and natural resources influence the economy and to identify a cultural change and indicate whether that change occurred because of diffusion or invention/innovation, which requires interpreting evidence and making a reasoned judgment based on the readings.

Students gather factual information by reading assigned pages and completing 'Quick Guide' pages that ask for population, official language(s), form of government, geography, and how resources influence the economy. In Option 2 students locate three news articles, record sources, and write 2–3 sentence summaries of each story. In Option 1 students must state at least one reason why the suggested sustainable action is a good idea and are given links to policy and agency resources to support that reasoning. The Parent Plan also asks students to "examine contrasting perspectives" on environmental problems, which invites consideration of different claims.

Students are asked to research three international organizations and to record one example for each that is an actual activity based on their research and a second example that may be imagined (Option 2). In Option 1 students read descriptions of the organizations and match six scenarios to the organization that can best address them, requiring students to apply information to make reasoned judgments. The lesson also directs students to read DK pages and visit organization websites to find factual information about those organizations and their projects.

Students read and synthesize current news items in Activity 2 by skimming three news stories, selecting one, and creating either a 2-3 sentence written summary with a cited source or a 2-3 minute newscast that states what happened, when, where, and who was involved. The parent guidance asks students to check their written summary against the original source to ensure they have correctly summarized the main ideas. The student activity pages for cultural change ask students to identify whether a cultural change occurred because of diffusion or invention/innovation, which requires students to interpret causes based on readings.

Students are asked to observe phenomena and record a phenomenon, the form of energy, and the specific evidence that supports their identification (Activity 3 survey), which requires linking observations to claims. The materials repeatedly instruct students to "analyze each situation carefully" and to use vocabulary cards to remember forms of energy, promoting evidence-based reasoning about observations. The parent guidance also asks students to give a rationale for categorical claims (e.g., which form of energy is most common) and to justify answers to questions about sources and forms.

Students read assigned chapters and answer comprehension questions that state causal claims (e.g., fossil fuels cause climate change) and potential problems to solve, requiring them to use text information. In Activity 2 students collect state-level data (from EIA or power company sites) and create a pie chart, which has them identify and report factual energy-generation percentages. The optional world comparison asks students to read charts about access to electricity and shares from fossil fuels/renewables/nuclear and to consider how those facts might impact daily life, prompting students to form reasoned judgments based on data.

Students are instructed to review factual material labeled "Things to Know" and to study unit vocabulary and definitions for the unit test, which focuses on concrete energy concepts. Students collect and analyze empirical data by examining utility bills, using the Energy Use Calculator, and completing a home energy audit to identify top energy uses. Students are asked to use a study as supporting evidence in a sample letter and to write a persuasive paragraph using terms like advantage, disadvantage, renewable, and environment, which requires using evidence and reasoned claims.

Students are prompted to record "3 interesting facts or vivid details" for each news article in the "News Watch!" or "Today's News Hunt" activity, which requires them to identify factual information from texts. Students are also asked to answer "How this issue or event might affect the community" and "Will it affect me personally?", which asks them to make judgments or predictions based on the articles they read. The activities require reading news sources and summarizing details and a personal phrase, giving students opportunities to separate factual details from their own interpretations or responses.

Students read Chapter 9 about Stevie Smith and answer direct comprehension questions that require recalling facts (e.g., why she was called Stevie, what inspired "Not Waving But Drowning"). Students are prompted to compare Smith's poem to the original article about the drowning, with a discussion note that the article likely contained more complete factual information (names, places). Students also discuss differences between Smith's tone and themes, which involves distinguishing kinds of content (how information is presented versus what is asserted).

The active-viewing tips ask students to ask questions such as "Where did the film's writers get their information?" and to pause the film to look up more information, prompting evaluation of source-based claims. The note-taking example explicitly models writing a speculative question ("Roanoke -- Lost Colony -- What might have happened?"), which encourages students to recognize and record uncertainty. The parent guidance repeatedly tells students to view with a critical eye, take notes, and discuss where information comes from, supporting source evaluation and curiosity about evidence.

Activity 1 asks students to read a 1584 English account, notes that historians consult multiple perspectives and that available European sources may be biased or incomplete, and then directs students to write a 2–3 paragraph diary from an American Indian point of view, which requires considering how perspective affects claims. Option 1 asks students to design a recruitment poster and explicitly asks whether an advertiser might "stretch the truth," prompting students to evaluate persuasive claims versus truthful facts. The "Coming to America" Venn diagram and parent guidance require students to compare Equiano's Middle Passage and the Mayflower voyage, noting factual differences (e.g., forced vs. voluntary passage, space, mortality) and interpretive conclusions about those differences. The tobacco vs. silk/flax activity has students read National Park Service articles and complete a pros-and-cons chart, which asks them to synthesize research findings and make reasoned judgments about which crop would be a better economic choice.

Students are asked in the Salem Witch Trials activity to evaluate several possible explanations by writing the merits and doubts for each explanation and marking whether each explanation likely contributed or is unlikely. The activity includes a table prompting students to consider reasons (e.g., fungus, mental illness, intentional accusations, religious culture) and to record doubts, which requires comparing claims and assessing their plausibility. The lesson also provides web links to primary-source collections (University of Virginia, Famous Trials) and asks students to review and discuss evidence in other activities (Mayflower Compact word cloud: prediction, observation, interpretation).

Students read Chapters 3 and 4 and answer factual comprehension questions (e.g., Describe a typical colonial house; What materials could be used to make clothing?), which asks them to locate and report facts from the text. Students complete the 'Colonial Goods' activity page by identifying sources for pictured goods (e.g., wool from a sheep, horseshoes from a local craftsman), practicing classification of concrete information. Students respond to prompts about how people obtained goods and how aristocrats showed wealth, which reinforces extracting factual details and everyday inferences from the readings.

Students answer specific factual reading questions (e.g., how colonists used milk; how food was stored; punishments for lawbreaking), which requires identifying facts from the text. In Option 2 students rank occupations and provide reasons, which asks them to make and justify reasoned judgments about importance to a town. In Option 1 and the introductory prompts students are asked to imagine scenarios (acting as a planter or a town leader and listing potential problems and benefits), which elicits speculative thinking about causes and outcomes.

Students answer direct comprehension questions about the episode (e.g., Joseph Plumb Martin's background, Von Steuben's influence), which requires extracting factual information from a text/video. Students write a 4–5 sentence movie review or a 3–4 sentence trailer script that asks them to summarize the episode, provide a criticism, and give a recommendation, which requires forming evaluative judgments. In the "Resistance" activity, students fill a table with "What It Did" (factual description) and "Why the British Might Have Enacted It" and "Why Colonists Might Have Objected" (requiring students to infer motives and reasons from historical evidence).

Students make direct observations and record quantitative data (mass measurements at 0 and 20 minutes) during the boiling-water activity, and they sketch and describe what they see. Students are asked to answer questions that require using those observations as evidence (e.g., "What evidence were you able to collect that supports that matter is not lost when it changes from a liquid to a gas?" and "How do we know that all matter is made of smaller, 'invisible' parts?"). The lesson asks students to explain what is making the container expand and to describe changes in particle behavior, prompting them to move from observed facts to explanatory claims.

Students answer direct factual questions about atomic structure (e.g., identifying the nucleus, counts of protons/neutrons/electrons, and charges) and build concrete models that reinforce those factual details. Students read and summarize historical experiments and discoveries (J.J. Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Schrödinger) and create a timeline that records what each scientist discovered and the interpretations drawn from experiments. Students use provided links to read about original experiments and conclusions, exposing them to research findings and the scientists' reasoned judgments.

The conductivity activity asks students to write predictions for each material and then record "Before" and "After" temperature measurements, enabling comparison of prior speculation with observed data. The reading and question set includes direct factual questions (e.g., who created the periodic table; characteristics of metals and nonmetals) that students answer from the text. The "Ideas to Think About" and discussion prompts ask open-ended questions (e.g., "Is all matter beneficial and useful?" and "Why do you think play dough is less...?") that elicit students' speculative reasoning.

Students collect empirical data and record direct observations in the Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Density tables (e.g., measuring volume by displacement, timing melting in different conditions). Students calculate density by dividing mass by volume and use weight measurements from Day 1 to draw conclusions about density and weight differences across celestial bodies. Students answer guided questions about solubility and melting/boiling behavior and are given answer keys that explain conclusions based on definitions and observed results.

Students read specified pages in Eyewitness Chemistry and answer direct questions about definitions and properties (e.g., difference between mixtures and compounds, ways to separate mixtures, examples of unreactive elements), which requires identifying factual information in a text. In Activity 2, students perform experiments (dissolving, heating sugar and salt), record observations across conditions, and answer whether the compound changed, requiring them to use experimental evidence to form reasoned judgments about chemical change. The Parent Plan lists a skill to "Evaluate evidence that elements combine...," indicating students are expected to use evidence to support conclusions about compounds.

Students collect a list of household items and identify primary and secondary materials in a survey, then research the materials' properties and reasons for their use (e.g., determine that a fork is stainless steel and resists corrosion). Students use provided resources (periodic table link) and complete the "Getting Specific with an Element" chart, filling factual data such as atomic number, melting/boiling points, and common compounds. Students are prompted to consider whether cost or function influenced material choice and to use research to support their answers.

Students are asked to consider "How does the availability of primary sources influence historical writing?" in the Ideas to Think About section, which prompts them to think about evidence and interpretation. In the Exploring the Book activities students examine the book's bibliography, foreword, and chronology and are asked to judge whether the bibliography reflects thorough research. The reading questions include prompts that require interpretation (for example, "What do you think Abigail's grandmother meant..." and "What did John Adams mean...") that ask students to make judgments based on the text.

Students locate the sources for quoted material using endnotes and the bibliography (Questions 1–3) and record bibliographic information as a stated skill. Students are asked to judge the validity and reliability of the sources cited in Chapters 3 and 4 (Question #4 and its answer). The lesson text explains that citations let readers assess whether an author relied on valid sources and interpreted information correctly, and discussion prompts ask how citations help readers and researchers. Students analyze paragraph structure and identify supporting sentences and evidence that develop a main point in the Paragraph Analysis activities.

Students examine primary sources (Paul Revere engraving, John Adams diary) and are asked to 'state your argument' about the artist's view and to 'support that argument with 2-3 specific examples.' Students must choose two passive-voice clauses from readings and explain why the author used passive voice, which asks them to reason about author intent and evidence. Students also write first-person historical accounts 'based on his research,' requiring them to use source material to construct interpretations.

The lesson explicitly teaches the difference between conditional and subjunctive moods, including that conditional sentences describe situations that could actually happen and subjunctive sentences describe imaginary or hypothetical situations. Activity 1 asks students to identify sentences as conditional or subjunctive and to underline words that indicate those moods, giving practice distinguishing plausible predictions from hypothetical statements. Question #1 asks students to explain why John Adams wanted Abigail to save their correspondence, prompting students to offer reasoned explanations rather than simple recall.

Students are asked in Activity 1 (Option 1) to read full primary letters and compare their own notes to the way the biographer used those letters, including questions such as "What point or idea was the author attempting to convey using selections from this letter?" Option 2 asks students to analyze a document's creator, content, context, and especially its point of view or bias, and to ‘‘look for specific places in the letter that will provide the evidence you need.'' The parent discussion prompts explicitly ask how readers can be sure an author is using a primary source thoughtfully and note that authors may interpret evidence differently.

Students answer direct factual questions (Question #1 asks how people reacted when the Declaration was read), which has them identify concrete events from the text. Students identify an author's argument (Question #2 asks what Abigail Adams argued for regarding educating women), which asks them to recognize a reasoned judgment. Students are asked to offer interpretations and inferences (Questions #3 and #4 note that "answers will vary" and ask what Abigail may have been thinking or how letter-writing helped her cope), which prompts speculation based on the reading.

Students are instructed to "write a paragraph that summarizes the scene you chose based solely on known facts -- do not add any details," which requires them to identify and record factual information from the nonfiction biography. The Option 1 guidance contrasts nonfiction summary with fictional rewrites (historical fiction, mystery, science fiction), asking students to "embellish the scene and make up details," which makes factual versus speculative content explicit. The "Things to Know" section defines historical fiction and notes that authors may "invent new characters, imagine new situations, or make up details that are not verifiable in the historical record," further distinguishing verifiable fact from invented material.

Students answer specific reading questions that require recalling factual details from the biography (Questions 1–4). The Voice and Mood Summary explicitly tells students that the indicative mood is used for stating facts and describes conditional and subjunctive moods as expressing hypotheticals or non-real situations. The memorial-writing activity asks students to compose an obituary or eulogy, which requires them to include factual information and personal memories.

Students are required to quote directly from at least one primary source and to provide accurate dates and historical information for each scene, which requires identifying factual material. Instructions ask students to explain events and ‘anything the audience may not be familiar with,' prompting students to support claims with contextual details. The unit test includes a paragraph-analysis item that asks students to identify supporting evidence, which asks students to connect claims to evidence in a text. The one-person play rubric specifically requires reading from a primary source and providing accurate historical information.

Students read primary and secondary texts (e.g., "A More Perfect Union," "Identifying Defects in the Constitution," and Federalist No. 10) and answer direct questions about concrete problems with the Articles of Confederation, Rhode Island's refusal, the Great Compromise, and the Bill of Rights. In Activity 1, students analyze modern problems and explicitly connect those hypothetical scenarios to specific factual weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. In Activity 3, students examine Federalist No. 10 (via video or text), identify factions and the policies they might support, and evaluate who would be harmed or oppose those policies, which requires drawing reasoned conclusions from the source. In Activity 4, students compose an Anti-Federalist speech that must give a specific example of how the Constitution might cause problems, practicing argumentation based on evidence and examples.

Students read factual texts (Article I of the Constitution and White House overview) and answer explicit factual questions about representation, who may introduce a bill, and how a bill becomes law. In Activity 2 students read a real bill, summarize its purpose, and answer prompts such as "Who do you think might benefit from this bill?" and "Do you think this bill sounds like a good idea?", which ask for judgments about the bill. The flow-chart and song activities ask students to represent the legislative process as factual sequences of steps.

The Landmark Cases activity asks students to research a Supreme Court case and complete prompts that require them to record the basis for the case and what the court decided (factual information). The activity also asks students to explain what legal precedent was established and why that precedent matters today (analysis/reasoned judgment) and to provide an example of how life would be different if the case had been decided differently (hypothetical speculation). The reading and Activity 1 quizzes require students to check understanding of procedural facts about the court system.

Students are asked to research a local issue (Option 2) and to summarize the issue, identify organizations involved, and list strategies used to create change, which requires gathering and using research findings. The activity pages and the 'Whom Would You Call' task direct students to use local government websites, libraries, and other sources to find factual information about offices, services, and contacts. The Parent Plan and Skills section include tasks to 'evaluate the effectiveness of various approaches' and to 'analyze issues' pursued through citizen campaigns, implying that students will use evidence to form judgments.

Students are asked to list "Four facts people should know about this issue" in the Action Plan issue analysis, which requires identifying factual information from research. Students are instructed to summarize the president's and legislators' positions and to use party websites to identify and summarize party positions on issues, which asks them to gather evidence and form comparisons. Students must choose which party's views "come closest to your own" and circle positions they agree with, which requires making a reasoned judgment based on their research.

Students perform experiments (Activity 1 and Activity 2) in which they observe, record, and code outcomes (e.g., "bubbling," "heat," "change in volume") using the Observation Guide and Student Activity Pages; students are prompted to touch the bottle to judge temperature and to record increases or decreases. The lesson provides declarative statements labeled "Things to Know" and "Wrapping Up" (for example, definitions of atomic theory and conservation of mass) that present clearly stated factual claims. Questions to Consider and the Parent Plan sample answers ask students to explain why matches do or do not ignite and to relate observations to causes, prompting students to form reasoned judgments based on their experimental findings.

Students are asked to make predictions on the 'Basic Chemical Reactions' activity page before mixing substances, which requires them to generate speculative hypotheses. Students record observations of what they see during each combination, providing opportunities to collect and state factual evidence. Students are prompted to decide whether a chemical reaction occurred (e.g., Wrapping Up and Parent Plan questions like 'How could you test this?'), which requires drawing reasoned judgments from their experimental findings.

Students record empirical measurements and observations (e.g., room temperature, temperature of mixture, height where the flame stopped) on the activity table, which provides factual data. Students use those data to draw conclusions (for example, identifying the baking soda–vinegar reaction as endothermic because the temperature decreased and explaining that CO2 displaced oxygen to extinguish the flame), demonstrating reasoned judgments based on findings. Students are also asked to predict future behavior (e.g., what will happen to the carbon dioxide in a sealed bottle or after thirty minutes), which prompts them to generate speculation or hypotheses.

Students are prompted to make pH guesses before testing (Activity 1 and the Student Activity Page include a "pH guess" column), which records their predictions (speculation). Students then perform experiments with red cabbage indicator and litmus paper, observe color changes, and record observed colors and estimated pH ranges (collecting research findings). The answer key and "Things to Know" sections present definitive statements and pH ranges (factual information) that students can compare to their measured results.

Students record observable data (temperatures, formation of bubbles, color changes) in the Steel Wool activity and answer questions about what evidence indicates a chemical reaction, which requires using experimental findings to make conclusions. The Things to Know and introductory sections present clear factual statements about physical vs chemical changes and definitions (e.g., specific heat, catalyst), giving students explicit facts to use. Activity 2 asks students to make 'smart guesses' about states of matter and notes that 'wrong answers are okay,' prompting students to offer speculations when direct evidence is lacking.

Students answer factual reading questions (e.g., Who produced the first battery? What is electrolysis?) showing practice with identifying factual information. In the Solubility activity students make explicit predictions before testing substances and then record observations and compare predictions with results, which provides practice distinguishing speculative predictions from observed facts. In the electromagnet and battery activities students record measured data in tables and are prompted to "make a statement about how physical properties may influence magnetism," which asks them to form reasoned judgments based on their experimental findings.

Students are asked to record observable data (element symbols, material type, group numbers, and pH) for reactants and products in Activity 1, which requires interpreting factual information from tables and measurements. In Activity 2 and the Questions to Consider, students identify observable signs of a chemical reaction (bubbling/gas production and precipitate formation) as evidence that a reaction occurred. Students use pH information and observed outcomes to decide whether a reaction produced a salt, which requires drawing a conclusion from collected data.

Students sort a list of 15 statements into claim, evidence, or justification in Activity 1 and are given explicit definitions for each term (claim as a testable statement; evidence as data from experimentation; justification as using evidence to support or refute a claim). Activity 2 asks students to write an initial claim, collect observations and data as evidence during experiments with Tums, vinegar, and baking soda, and then write a justification that accepts or rejects their claim based on that evidence. The Parent Plan/Answer Key reinforces these activities by labeling each example statement as claim, evidence, or justification and by describing how observations should be used to justify or refute a claim.

The lesson defines a value judgment and contrasts it with a fact ("A fact is something that has been shown as true. A value judgment is an informed opinion"). Activity 2 asks students to investigate listed substances using provided research links and to record risks, benefits, and a written value explanation for each substance. Parent guidance instructs reviewers to check whether a student's rationale makes "rational connections" or is an "inferential leap that is not justified by evidence," which directs attention to evidence-based versus unsupported claims.

Students are asked to research a medicine by collecting factual information (chemical name and formula, benefits, harms, side effects, natural occurrence) and to "collect evidence" for a final decision. They are instructed to create a claim, evidence, and justification (Slides 6–8) and to use steps of scientific argumentation to support an executive decision. The Tums example has students generate three hypothetical statements representing possible outcomes, and the unit explicitly states that "value judgments are opinions based on your own analysis of evidence."

Students answer specific comprehension questions (Questions #1-#4) that require recalling concrete events and facts from Chapter 2 (e.g., why the pigs did most of the teaching; how the rebellion came about). One question (#5) explicitly invites students to offer a hypothesis about the milk, prompting speculation and inference. In the leadership and Seven Commandments activities, students are asked to cite specific examples from the novel and to compare documents, which requires making reasoned judgments supported by textual evidence.

Students are asked in the map activity to "Create a map of the physical location of the battle based on specific evidence in the book" and told they "may need to guess about the size, shape, and location of some things," which prompts use of textual evidence versus guesswork. Reading comprehension questions require students to identify specific events and actions from the chapter (how the animals spread the word, farmers' reactions, what happened to the gun), which practices distinguishing factual details in the text. The wrap-up and discussion prompts ask students to consider whether leaders influenced how the Battle of the Cowshed would be remembered, which asks students to form interpretive judgments about motives and representation.

Students are asked to research the Russian Revolution and complete activity pages that require listing birth/death dates, roles, and a "Connection to 'Animal Farm'" plus "Specific evidence that leads to that connection," which requires grounding claims in research. Students must create a short timeline linking historical events to the novel and answer reading questions that require recalling concrete events from the text (e.g., what happened to Mollie; how Napoleon drove Snowball off). The answer key repeatedly instructs students to "be sure that the evidence your child provides supports the connection" and provides factual details for comparison.

Students answer several direct comprehension questions (Questions #1-#3) that require recalling factual events from Chapter 7 (e.g., why animals wanted to give impression of no food shortage, what caused the hens to protest, why animals were killed). Students respond to an open evaluative question (Question #4) asking whether Snowball was really visiting or whether Napoleon fabricated/exaggerated the treachery, which prompts students to weigh competing explanations. In Activity 1 students are asked to write persuasive advice from Napoleon's perspective and to use examples and appeals, which asks them to craft reasoned arguments (though not explicitly based on research findings).

Students read Chapter 8 of Animal Farm and answer Question #2 asking how often assertions about the farm's success, stories about Frederick, and Snowball's role are backed by credible evidence. Students are asked to recognize that "there is seldom any actual evidence presented" and to explain reasons behind the misinformation (reassurances, explanations, and the dogs encouraging belief). Parent-plan discussion prompts ask students to consider how Napoleon maintains power "with misinformation and intimidation," which directs students to evaluate credibility and motive.

Students are repeatedly asked to cite textual evidence to support analyses and inferences (Skills and multiple activity instructions). Activities require students to identify specific incidents from the novel that illustrate a theme and to "show" evidence that led them to their conclusions (Activity 2, Developing a Theme). Instructions and wrap-up remind students to be able to point to specific examples from the reading that support their thematic claims.

Students are asked to cite textual evidence (Skills section: "Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis...") and to compose letters that make claims about themes and characters (e.g., the Sample Outline asks students to list examples of how Napoleon broke the commandments and when he lied). The rubric explicitly assesses use of appropriate evidence under the Ideas category, and students must organize and support main ideas in each paragraph (Activity 4 editing questions). These tasks require students to provide support and reasoned arguments based on the novel's text.

Students answer specific factual reading questions (Questions 1–4) that ask for the official title and date of the Northwest Ordinance, population requirements for territories and states, the states created, and what the ordinance allowed or banned, which requires identifying facts in texts. Students read a primary account by Daniel Boone and respond to prompts about what dangers he faced, how he presents himself, and what adjectives describe him, which asks them to form interpretations and judgments about a historical narrative. Discussion prompts (e.g., "Do you think Daniel Boone was a hero?" and "Do you think it was fair...?") and the option to evaluate whether Boone's version is the whole truth give students opportunities to express reasoned judgments and speculation about historical events and perspectives.

Students answer direct reading questions that require recalling factual information (e.g., why Americans approved the Louisiana Purchase, length and miles of the Lewis and Clark expedition). Students create a timeline or top-10 list and are asked to include dates, descriptions, and reasons for significance, which requires making reasoned judgments based on what they read. The optional journal extension asks students to imagine and write from a Corps member's perspective, prompting imaginative (speculative) writing that should be grounded in historical information.

Students read multiple primary and secondary texts (Andrew Jackson's message, General Scott's ultimatum, Chief John Ross's letter, Emerson's letter, personal narratives, and soldier accounts). Students are instructed to record justifications supporting Indian Removal and objections opposing it in their own words on an activity page. Students imagine historical perspectives in scenarios and must choose a stance and give reasons, and they summarize personal accounts and explain what those accounts helped them understand.

Students are asked to extract a direct quote from Enrique Esparza's Alamo account and write an explanatory sentence about what his memories convey, which requires identifying and using a factual excerpt. In the Manifest Destiny activity, students infer the artist's message and cite visual evidence (Question 3) and generate a critic's perspective or alternate painting (Questions 4 and 5), which asks them to form and defend judgments and to imagine speculative viewpoints. Discussion prompts ask students to take a position about whether the U.S. behaved like a bully toward Mexico and to justify their answers, prompting reasoned argumentation based on the readings.

Students read first-person accounts from the Library of Congress and are asked to "look for details about living conditions, work, food, shelter, and daily challenges in a mining camp," which directs them to identify factual details. Students must write a letter from an imagined miner that includes an "assessment of whether or not coming to California had been, ultimately, a good idea," which requires them to form a reasoned judgment. Students create monologues and poems that require explaining motives and expectations (e.g., "why he or she headed west"), activities that can involve speculation or inferred motivations.

Students answer factual reading questions (e.g., whether U.S. control caused changes in New Mexico and challenges on the Oregon Trail), which requires identifying concrete facts from the text. In the Image Analysis activity, students list visible elements, describe setting and objects, and answer interpretive prompts such as "Why do you think this picture was taken?" and "What is the overall mood?", which prompts them to separate direct observations from interpretations. The Pony Express simulation asks students to compare their observed outcome (beat the relay team or not) to the historical principle, encouraging comparison of observed results with an explanatory claim.

Students are asked to build a historically accurate storyboard that requires them to identify what life was like before moving west, reasons for moving, federal government actions that affected the character, and to compare expectations with realities. The art-gallery option requires students to find images, document the URL sources, and write 1-2 sentences describing each image and its historical significance. The unit test and short-answer prompts ask students to describe how things worked (e.g., the Pony Express) and to explain causes and outcomes (e.g., reasons for expansion, outcomes of the War of 1812), requiring use of factual information and interpretation.

Students make explicit predictions and hypotheses in Activity 2 (e.g., "Bottle # ___ will have the highest temperature after 20 minutes") and then collect temperature data at intervals. Students are asked to "repeat your initial prediction... and then state whether it was or was not correct" and to "Justify or refute" their hypothesis using the evidence they collected. In the fusion marshmallow activity and accompanying questions, students are prompted to evaluate limitations of the simulation and suggest ways to make it more accurate, drawing on observations and video information.

Students are prompted to make explicit predictions in Activity 1 (mark an X beside the setup they think will heat faster) and Activity 1 Part II/Conduction (predict the order in which the quarters will fall), which represents speculation. Students record timed observations and actual order of events in the student activity tables, producing empirical facts from the experiments. Students are asked to explain why one setup heated faster and to answer questions about molecular behavior and conservation of energy, which requires forming reasoned judgments based on their observations and the provided background explanations.

Students are asked to re-read informational pages and answer direct questions about what chemical energy is and how it is released, which requires identifying factual information (e.g., "Chemical energy is the energy stored in compounds" and "chemical bonds are broken"). Students must explain how listed energy sources enable work and justify how light and heat serve as evidence of chemical energy, which asks them to form reasoned explanations based on observed effects. The discussion prompts (e.g., "Is all motion observable? Why or why not?") and the modeling activity require students to describe atomic-level processes and connect observations (sparks, heat, light) to unseen molecular motion, asking for inferential reasoning from evidence.

Students make and record empirical observations in Activity 1 by measuring temperatures of soil, sand, and water over time and graphing results, which supports forming evidence-based conclusions. The lesson asks students to make predictions with prompts such as "What do you think would happen if you completely dried out each type of soil?" and to compare those predictions to observed heating/cooling trends. The reading questions and answers (e.g., how ears hear sound; differences between sound and electromagnetic waves) present factual statements that students read and respond to.

Students make explicit predictions in the Chemical Energy activity (they circle whether mixing Diet Coke and Mentos will create a physical or chemical change) and then record observations after the demonstration. Students read an explanation that reports how scientists revised an initial assumption after testing (describing a reasoned judgment based on investigation) and they read clear factual definitions of kinetic and potential energy in the "Things to Know" and vocabulary sections. Students also compare their prediction to observed outcomes and the provided scientific explanation.

Students collect and record experimental data in the lever activity, measure effort and load arm lengths, calculate mechanical advantage, and answer questions comparing mechanical advantage with effort (Activity 2). In the efficiency activity, students survey household objects for heat loss, record yes/no observations, rank devices from least to most efficient, and provide reasons for their rankings (Activity 3). The Parent Plan explicitly lists the skill to "Evaluate data for qualitative and quantitative relationships associated with energy transfer and/or transformation," which directs students to use evidence to support conclusions.

Students are asked to make explicit predictions (e.g., "The bucket will or will not topple the cup/bowl") which shows them practicing speculation. The Activities and Simulation require students to run experiments, record observations, and explain why the pendulum behaved a certain way (e.g., why the swing came up short), which engages them in drawing reasoned judgments based on investigation. The lesson text includes declarative statements labeled "Things to Know" and answer-key explanations (e.g., the Law of Conservation of Energy and definitions of KE/PE/thermal) that present clear factual claims for students to read and use.

Students read informational texts and website pages (solar pros/cons, Project Sunroof, a solar calculator) and record measurable data such as hours of usable sunlight, roof square footage, recommended kW, and cost estimates. Students analyze advantages and disadvantages and are asked to select the most important three pros and cons and explain their reasoning. Students use collected data to make and explain a recommendation about installing solar panels and respond to discussion questions that ask for opinions and reasoning (including a labeled 'Challenging Opinion Question' and a 'Questionable' column in the answer key).

Students read informational webpages about how turbines and power plants work and summarize that information in their own words or diagrams. Students research pros and cons and site-specific data using provided links, then decide whether wind energy is practical in their area and explain how they came to that conclusion in a presentation. The project asks students to predict how wind energy might be used to generate electricity and to explain benefits and costs, and the wrap-up explicitly states that students should use facts to make arguments based on evidence.

Students read Chapters 7–12 and answer factual comprehension questions (e.g., identifying which elements Marie and Pierre Curie discovered and why isolating them was difficult). The Parent Plan and Activities ask students to "determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text" and to take notes that summarize main points and conclusions (sample notes and answer key point out conclusions such as "Einstein concludes that ether doesn't exist" and historical positions about light being a wave or particle). Discussion prompts ask students to explain why some scientists believed light was a wave while others believed it was a particle, which requires students to consider experiments and reasoning behind those conclusions.

Students read chapters that present scientific hypotheses and experiments (for example, the Einstein–Bohr debate about light and Arthur Compton's x-ray scattering experiments that demonstrated particle behavior). Students are asked to summarize sequences of events and include people, dates, and terms (Option 2 planning pages ask for "People involved," "Important dates," and "Terms or concepts that need explanation"). Students are prompted to explain why a topic is interesting or important and to check a peer's understanding of their summary.

The Parent Plan explicitly lists "Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based on research findings, and speculation in a text" as a skill to be taught. In Activity 2 students evaluate web pages for credibility, accuracy, and appropriateness and answer whether a site (including Wikipedia) would be a good research source, which requires judging the basis of claims. The Chapter 23 timeline and discussion questions ask students to record factual world and scientific events and to explain how Germany's actions affected science, which engages students in noting facts and making reasoned judgments about historical impact.

The Parent Plan and skills list ask students to "develop the topic with relevant, well-chosen facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples" and to include page numbers for specific information from the book. The reading questions (e.g., Q1 and Q2) require students to explain significance and trace a series of events, asking them to draw conclusions from the text. The Activity and Planning pages require students to choose causes/effects and support each point with specific details or examples from the book.

The Parent Plan lists that students should "Determine the central ideas or conclusions of a text; provide an accurate summary of the text distinct from prior knowledge or opinions," and that they should "Develop the topic with relevant, well-chosen facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples." The instruction that the writer should avoid phrases like "I believe" or "In my opinion" and the Option 2 requirement to use examples from the book and include page numbers show students must use evidence from the text rather than unsupported opinion. The planning and organization pages require students to list specific points and details/examples to support each comparison or contrast point.

Students are explicitly given the objective to "Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based on research findings, and speculation in a text" in the Parent Plan skills list. Students read specific chapters and answer factual questions (e.g., redshift, Hubble's realization, Cepheid stars) that require extracting factual information and conclusions. Students practice summarizing and paraphrasing passages and classifying statements as common knowledge, requiring citation, or requiring quotation, which engages them in evaluating the nature and support of claims.

Students answer specific factual reading questions (e.g., What causes a supernova? Why can't you see beyond an event horizon?), which requires extracting facts from the text. Students evaluate two possible solutions in Activity 1 by listing pros and cons and choosing the best solution, which asks them to weigh evidence and make a reasoned judgment. The sample passage contrasting the ether hypothesis with Einstein's photon explanation presents an example of earlier speculative reasoning versus later conclusions based on experiments, and the discussion prompts note that some black hole information is still theoretical.

The Parent Plan skills list explicitly names the target skill: "Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment based on research findings, and speculation in a text." Students analyze a student research paper in Activity 1 by identifying thesis, topic sentences, and listing the problem and the three solutions the author explores, with a note that the author does not evaluate which solution is best. In Activities 4–5 students gather multiple sources, record quotations, statistics, and are instructed to organize and even color-code notes that separate research showing different positions (e.g., evidence that light is a wave vs. a particle). The unit review and test include items asking students to explain how experiments supported different conclusions about light, which requires attention to evidence and conclusions.

Students read primary and secondary texts about Andrew Jackson and the Bank of the United States and answer targeted questions that summarize causes and perspectives (Questions 1–3). In Option 2 students sort statements into "Supporters" and "Opponents" columns, comparing claims like "The Bank helped stabilize the money supply" and "The Bank favors a privileged few." In Option 1 students create a word cloud of Jackson's veto message and infer central issues from prominent words such as "constitution," "power," and "bank."

Students read Chapter 18 and firsthand accounts (e.g., Gene Schermerhorn, mill voices) and are asked to describe specific aspects of antebellum city and factory life. Students must list at least two positive and two negative things about city life in a letter or drawings, and must describe mill working conditions or risks and benefits of canal work in a diary, ad, or assembly-line reflection. Students create an advertisement that must state why the canal matters, what work will be done, and the risks and benefits to workers, which asks them to use details from the readings to support their claims.

Students work with primary numeric census data in the map activity (a table of 1850 birthplace counts and directions to draw lines based on numbers), which has them read and use factual information. Students examine nineteenth-century images and accompanying captions for the Irish Potato Famine and are asked to write a poem reflecting emotions, and they read personal accounts (Allen Jay, Maria Weems) and retell those stories in first person, which requires using source details to construct interpretations. Discussion prompts ask students to explain why people came to the United States and why people moved within it, prompting students to offer reasons based on the readings and data.

Students answer factual reading questions (Questions 1–3) that ask for specific historical details such as Sarah Pierce's curriculum and what the Seneca Falls Declaration described. Students respond to an interpretive question (Question 4) asking what Sojourner Truth meant by repeatedly asking "A'n't I a woman?", which asks them to make a reasoned judgment about meaning. Students plan interview questions, conduct online or library research to answer at least three of them, and also write imagined answers for other questions, which produces both research-based responses and speculative answers.

Students use quantitative data in Activity 2 to plot Southern population growth from 1790–1860 and answer questions that ask them to draw conclusions from that graph. In Activity 5 students read pro- and anti-slavery texts (Hammond and Douglass), list reasons, and prepare a short speech that refutes specific pro-slavery arguments. In Activities 1 and 3 students analyze secondary and primary sources (a PBS narrative and slave narratives) and explain how the cotton gin changed lives and summarize details from firsthand accounts.

Students read chapters and answer questions that require identifying factual information (for example, explaining the Dred Scott decision and defining popular sovereignty). Students explain the Republican Party's stated opposition to the expansion of slavery, which presents a reasoned political argument from the period. In Activity 2, students summarize the arguments for and against allowing slavery in new territories and identify who might have held each position, which engages them with competing claims and interpretations.

Students are required to include at least one map, graph, or table showing data to support main points (rubric item #8) and to include data or images for each major bullet point on their poster, which asks them to use evidence to support claims. The unit test short-answer question asking who benefited from a technology and who was harmed (Question 15) asks students to analyze consequences and justify judgments about effects. The rubric also requires that questions be answered thoughtfully and accurately, and students must prepare to speak about and defend their poster content during a Q&A.

Students perform hands-on tests for lipids and starch, record observations in provided tables, and compare results to answer keys, which gives practice distinguishing empirical observations (e.g., paper bag translucence, iodine color change). Students categorize substances and match building blocks to biomolecules on activity pages, which requires identifying factual information. The "Questions to Consider" prompt students to generate explanations (e.g., why foods have starches and fats, why cravings occur), which asks them to form reasoned judgments based on their observations and knowledge.

Students are asked to research two inorganic substances and record specific factual details (chemical symbol/formula, functions in the body, how the body obtains the substance), which requires locating and recording facts. Students analyze Nutrition Facts labels and compare grams of fat, carbohydrate, and protein to determine which biomolecule is most prevalent, an activity that requires making data-based, reasoned judgments. Students are asked to reflect on cravings and answer why they occur, an activity that invites students to generate speculative explanations.

The Scientific Argumentation section asks students to write a Claim, collect Evidence from experiments, and produce a Justification, and the Osmosis in Action activity has students state predictions, record observations, and justify conclusions. The freezing-point example models how students compare experimental evidence to a claim and draw a conclusion. The hunger/craving scenarios ask students to differentiate physiological hunger (linked to hormones) from emotional cravings, which requires distinguishing an evidence-based biological explanation from an emotional or situational explanation.

Students look up specific factual information (types of agents, doses for toxicity, and sources) in Activity 2 and record quantitative data such as ppm and lethal doses. Students answer direct factual reading questions about obesity statistics and dietary recommendations from the assigned article. In Activity 3, students use symptoms and researched dose/type information to narrow possibilities and make a diagnosis, which requires forming reasoned judgments based on their gathered findings.

Students are asked to research historical scientists (Activity 4) using an encyclopedia or the Internet and answer specific factual questions about Jenner, Pasteur, Koch, and Mechnikov. The lesson prompts students to give their own responses to open-ended prompts (e.g., "What do you think is the most important part of the virus? Why?" and "Why do you think taking medicine could help the body in its fight against infection?") and to compare their answers with provided answer keys. Students also interpret simulation results and answer reflective questions (e.g., "What would happen to an individual who had a weakened immune system?").

Students are asked to solve the "Mystery Ailment" by analyzing interviews and activity tables and to use that information to determine the source of an illness, which requires weighing evidence from multiple accounts. Students complete True/False items and rewrite false statements in Activity 1, practicing correction of factual errors. Students answer report questions that ask them to state the cause of the illness and describe scientific approaches epidemiologists use, prompting them to form evidence-based conclusions.

Students read fact-based sources (CDC and PBS fact sheets and NIH QuickFacts) and answer questions that require extracting immediate and long-term health risks, recommended intake amounts, and groups who should not drink alcohol. Students fill a Nutrient Amounts table with specific acceptable intake amounts, natural sources, and documented effects of deficiency and excess, which requires locating and recording research-based facts. In the advertising option, students analyze ads by identifying target audience and advertising strategy, prompting them to interpret persuasive claims and characterizations in texts.

Students are asked to conduct an investigation into fats that requires locating and recording information about the nutrient's importance, acceptable consumption rates, signs of overconsumption, and health impacts using provided web links. Students must compare their own measured consumption to recommended rates and document research findings on the "Impact of a Proper Diet" worksheets. The rubric emphasizes "Use of Data and Research," and the unit asks students to create a report and recommendations that rely on the research they gather.

Students read and summarize factual sources about slavery and Mark Twain (Activity 5 and Reading and Questions), including listing rules slaves had to follow and summarizing how the slave trade arrived in America. Students use maps to identify free and slave states (Activity 1 and 2), which requires identifying historical facts. Students view and respond to a video on linguistic profiling and answer questions that ask how people form judgments and whether Twain's use of dialect promotes stereotypes, prompting students to make evaluative judgments based on presented evidence.

Students are asked to read a student persuasive essay and identify the thesis, the three supporting reasons, and for each reason to list one type of evidence (examples given: facts, statistics, explanations, quotations, personal experiences). Activity 2 asks students to write sentences that use logic/reasoning, emotion, reasons/explanations, problem-and-solution, storytelling, and similes/analogies, giving practice in recognizing and producing different evidence types. The Parent Plan explicitly lists skills such as supporting claims with logical reasoning and relevant evidence and comparing and contrasting persuasive texts while analyzing the evidence presented.

Students are directed to read a news article about the Huckleberry Finn editing debate and to use that source when forming a persuasive position. The instructions tell students to "use a combination of types of evidence" and to record evidence in the Persuasion Map's "Facts or Examples" section. The Parent Plan emphasizes that students should "support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence, using accurate, credible sources."

Students answer explicit factual reading questions (e.g., Questions #1-#4 ask for specific factual information such as the single most pressing issue that led to the Civil War and which states seceded). Students analyze primary-source arguments by reading Lincoln's "House Divided" excerpt and Douglas's statement and filling a chart comparing their responses to specific questions. Students perform research and write a short persuasive letter (Option 1) or match stakeholders to politicians (Option 2), which requires them to form and justify reasoned judgments about historical positions.

Students answer factual reading questions (e.g., why southerners opposed Lincoln; what seceding states called themselves), which requires extracting facts from the text. In Activity 3, students use statistical data about North and South and answer questions that require making evidence-based predictions about war outcomes. In Activity 4, students list reasons on two sides ("Slavery" vs "States' Rights") and are asked to evaluate which argument is more convincing and to support their position with facts and reasonable assertions (parent guidance).

Students read specific pages of a historical text and answer factual comprehension questions (e.g., Questions #1, #2, and #4 ask for outcomes, plans, and changes in leaders' views). Students create battle cards in which they assign numeric ratings (-2 to +2) to indicate how each battle affected the Union and Confederacy and are prompted (in the Parent Plan) to explain their numerical answers, requiring them to justify judgments with evidence. Students respond to open-ended prompts about feelings and perspectives (Question #3 and the dramatization or art options) that require them to offer speculation or personal interpretation based on narratives.

Students answer factual recall questions such as the goal of the Peninsular Campaign and why Antietam was considered a Union victory, requiring them to identify concrete outcomes from the reading. Students respond to prompts asking the significance or purpose of campaigns (e.g., "What was the purpose of the Shenandoah Campaign?" and "Why was this battle important?"), which asks them to form reasoned judgments based on the text. Question #3 explicitly asks students to assess which army had better generals and notes that "answers may vary," prompting students to make an evaluative judgment grounded in the reading.

Students read the section on the Emancipation Proclamation and answer a direct factual question about what changes it created, describing who was freed and how African Americans could enlist. In the Civil War battle cards, students identify outcomes and answer "Why was this battle important?", prompting them to make interpretive judgments about significance. In Activity 2, students write a letter from a recruit explaining reasons for enlistment (including hopes and fears) or imagine a care package and note to Susie King Taylor, which requires students to create plausible motives and feelings about historical events.

Students read pages 53–73 of Fields of Fury and answer direct factual questions about the Civil War (e.g., roles of women, why Minie balls were dangerous, meaning of "rich man's war"). Students watch the "Civil War" episode and are prompted to remain active viewers and discuss causal and explanatory questions (e.g., how the Minie ball and new muskets contributed to casualties; how the telegraph and railroad changed the war; how the Emancipation Proclamation changed northerners' views). Students complete battle-card and timeline activities that require reporting outcomes and explaining the significance of specific battles.

Students answer short-response questions asking them to describe at least three differences between the North and South and to identify the most significant cause of the war, which requires them to weigh evidence and make a reasoned judgment. The parent prompts ask students to explain the rationale for the Union/Confederate numbers on their battle cards, requiring justification of those ratings. The matching and multiple-choice items require students to identify factual information about campaigns, battles, and figures from textual descriptions.

Students read explanatory text about cell theory and answer a question that contrasts a hypothesis and a theory (Question #4), which touches on differences between untested ideas and research-supported explanations. In Activity 2, students decide whether household objects are cellular or non-cellular and must write supporting evidence in a "Supporting Evidence" column, requiring them to make a judgment and cite evidence from prior information. The lesson also presents clear factual statements in the "Things to Know" and review sections that students read and can use as factual bases.

Students are asked to create a hypothesis in the Culturing Bacteria activity, which requires them to propose a testable speculation about temperature effects. Students carry out the experiment and record daily observations, producing empirical data (facts) about bacterial growth. The Draw Conclusions section asks students to compare their observations to the hypothesis and state "Based on the evidence the hypothesis is...", prompting students to form conclusions grounded in their data (reasoned judgment). The reading and question sets require students to identify factual information about prokaryote structures and differences.

Students are asked in Activity 2 to use Internet research from reputable sources to decide whether viruses should be classified as living or nonliving and to give the reasoning behind their choice. The Parent Plan and Activity 2 instruct students to "support [their] conclusion with evidence and logic" and to consider differing scientific opinions, which requires students to draw on research findings to form a reasoned judgment. The Reading and Questions section requires students to extract factual information (e.g., virus structure, transmission, replication location) from multiple sources.

Students are asked to write hypotheses in Activity 1 and later "draw conclusions" and "cite evidence" about which substances hinder or do not influence bacterial growth. In Activity 3 students must "analyze the evidence" to decide what illness the patient has and answer which evidence ruled out alternatives (flu or allergies). The Patient Diagnosis table presents factual symptom-and-cause statements that students use as data for making a diagnosis and treatment recommendation.

Students cut out and read historical cards, recall facts associated with each picture, and place the cards in chronological order (Activity 1), which has them identify and use factual information. The lesson asks students speculative questions such as "What do you think would have happened if the microscope had not been invented?" and "Do you think past discoveries have helped in the treatment of illness?" prompting hypothetical reasoning. In Activity 2, students record observations of agar samples and are instructed to "complete the Conclusion... and give a rationale for your answer using the evidence you have collected," which requires drawing reasoned judgments from experimental data.

Students research respiratory infections and use a symptoms list and mortality table to determine the likely cause of a mystery illness (Activities 1 and 2). Students examine compound and electron microscope images and compare them to reference images to decide whether the agent is a virus or bacteria and to identify SARS (Activity 3). Students are asked to "explain, using evidence, why a virus is or is not considered a living thing," and to research and propose prevention steps based on WHO/Mayo/Cleveland Clinic sources (Study Guide prompt, Activity 3, Activity 5).

Students read paired passages by George Fitzhugh and Frederick Douglass and answer questions that ask them to compare views, judge which voice seems more authentic, and explain what makes Douglass's account persuasive. Students analyze Douglass's word choice by circling vivid adjectives and underlining repeated verbs to support judgments about persuasiveness. Students answer text questions that require making inferences about the Preacher (e.g., listing incidents that create suspicion) and respond to an open question asking where the Preacher might have gotten the pistol, which elicits speculation.

Students are prompted to read Geologic Province web pages and answer "what are some interesting features and facts about the province in which you live?", which asks them to identify factual information from sources. Students are asked to "Describe how at least one major feature of this geologic region was formed," requiring them to construct an explanation based on research (a reasoned judgment). Students record detailed field observations (weather, soil, plants, animals) in a Field Journal, practicing empirical observation.

Students are instructed to use field guides, library research, or online sources and to jot down the sources they use, which supports finding research-based information. Several journal prompts ask students to provide factual details (scientific name, where it is found) and to answer "Why" questions (e.g., "Why is it a problem?", "Why is this animal endangered or threatened?", "Why do you think it was named your state tree?"), which asks for explanations or judgments grounded in research. The lesson also cautions students to prefer authoritative sources (universities, government offices, well-known non-profits), encouraging evaluation of evidence.

Students gather concrete biographical facts (name, dates, career path, notable achievements, and impact) on the Student Activity Page. Students list specific sources (URLs, titles/authors) and are prompted to circle one of their questions and, "based on your research," write how the person might answer, which asks for an evidence-based inference. Students use their research to write a short dedication speech that presents informational claims about the leader and justifies why a space should be named for them.

Students gather factual data by using provided web links to find their state's gross state product, percentage of national GDP, and rank, and they list top industries and largest employers. Students describe the economic roles of natural resources and are asked to name and describe the kinds of businesses run by top employers. Students are prompted to "notice any trends" among employers and to reflect in a thank-you letter on at least two new things they learned and what they found interesting, which encourages forming reasoned observations and personal responses.

Students are asked to identify and cite evidence when prompted by questions such as "What evidence, other than the DNA from the extraction, do you have that DNA is present in the cells of the strawberries?" and the parent-plan discussion "What evidence have you discovered that indicates the presence of DNA in the cells of living things?". Students collect observational data in Activity 1 by surveying family traits and highlighting shared features, which requires them to note factual similarities. The wrap-up and discussion prompts include a hypothetical prompt ("If you didn't know about DNA, how would you explain why someone looks like his or her mother...?") that invites students to generate speculative explanations contrasted with observed evidence.

Students are asked to read explanatory text about Mendel and answer questions about his conclusions (e.g., that offspring receive one gene from each parent and that traits can be dominant or recessive). Students are instructed to make hypotheses about whether traits are dominant or recessive based on parent and sibling charts and then compare those hypotheses to an answer key. Students conduct a coin-flip activity to collect data, calculate percentages, and reflect that repeating trials would make observed percentages move closer to expected values, linking evidence to prediction.

Students read a background text and a linked web page that provide factual descriptions of traits (phenotype/genotype, dominant vs. recessive) and fill a chart listing trait descriptions and dominance. Students collect data in a Family Survey by recording which relatives show each trait. Students answer questions that require them to use their collected data to explain how traits are passed and to infer possible parental genotypes, demonstrating reasoning from gathered evidence.

Students research diseases and complete charts that ask for "possible causes" and whether a condition has a genetic component (Activity 1 and The Influence of Environment). Activity 3 explicitly asks students to consider whether environmental factors cause illnesses and which illnesses are least influenced by environment, and the parent notes state that "there is speculation regarding the causes of certain neurodevelopmental disorders" and that "correlation does not mean cause." The Parent Plan lists "Evaluate evidence that human characteristics are a product of inheritance, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices," prompting students to use sources (KidsHealth, Mayo Clinic, NIH, etc.) to form judgments.

Students read pages 98–107 about genetic advances that include factual descriptions (e.g., how cloning works) and discussions of ethical and logistical issues, which exposes them to factual information and judgments. Activity 3 asks students to make a list of pros and cons and to discuss whether cloning should be legal, prompting students to form and state reasoned judgments. The Parent Plan supplies specific factual claims (for example, a ~3% success rate and examples of clone health/behavior problems) that students could use as evidence when forming opinions.

Students use provided tables and shaded cells to record which traits are "beneficial" for environments, showing they identify and use factual information from the materials. Students complete Punnett squares and analyze genotype crosses to determine which offspring survive in a new environment, engaging in evidence-based prediction and reasoning. Students answer wrap-up and discussion questions that ask them to consider whether a created creature could survive in an environment and how disease might impact future generations, prompting speculation and hypothetical reasoning.

Students are asked to take research notes from multiple sources, create source cards in MLA format, and use parenthetical citations and a Works Cited page, which supports identifying information grounded in research. The Skills and Parent Plan explicitly require students to 'differentiate fact from opinion' and to 'support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence' when delivering persuasive presentations and writing essays. In Activity 3 and companion answer keys, students highlight and label persuasive techniques including 'facts and numbers' and 'reliable research,' and in Activities 4 and 5 they practice using facts and constructing rebuttals based on evidence.

The lesson asks students to revise and edit persuasive essays, instructing them to check that each paragraph has a topic sentence and clear supporting details and to support claims with logical reasoning and relevant evidence. The skills list explicitly states students should "differentiate fact from opinion" and "support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence, using accurate, credible sources." The revision activity also asks students to anticipate and answer counterarguments and to arrange reasons and evidence effectively.

Students answer text-based comprehension questions that require extracting factual information (e.g., Matt's origins, what eejits are, secret passages, and Matt's abilities). Students create a family tree and write brief descriptions of characters, which requires distinguishing character facts and reasonable inferences about relationships. The skills list asks students to "differentiate fact from opinion and support arguments with detailed evidence, examples, and reasoning" and to "support claim(s) with logical reasoning and relevant evidence" when preparing persuasive presentations and final drafts.

Students read a persuasive essay about human cloning and are directed to identify and underline specific rhetorical and logical fallacies (loaded terms, caricatures, leading questions, false assumptions, incorrect premises). Students use a color-coded scheme to mark text that contains false assumptions and incorrect premises, and they are given explicit examples from the essay labeled as false assumptions and incorrect premises. Students also practice recognizing loaded language and leading questions that signal biased or speculative claims.

Students read two persuasive essays about human cloning and are prompted to "think about how the two authors reached different conclusions" and to "analyze the evidence each presents." Students complete an "Arguing the Issue" activity page that asks them to record each author's main arguments and to identify logical and rhetorical fallacies in those arguments. Students also practice creating and recognizing fallacies through a game that requires them to apply fallacy labels (e.g., false assumptions, incorrect premises) to specific claims.

The Parent Plan lists the skill to "delineate and evaluate the argument and specific claims in a text, assessing whether the reasoning is sound and the evidence is relevant and sufficient; recognize when irrelevant evidence is introduced," and to "cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text." The Irrelevant Evidence activity gives students passages (including one that states a 2009 statistic and follows with a speculative claim) and asks them to highlight irrelevant evidence and write a persuasive paragraph using irrelevant evidence. The Science Fiction activity asks students to provide evidence from The House of the Scorpion to support whether the book fits genre criteria, requiring them to match claims to supporting textual examples.

Students are asked to identify logical and rhetorical fallacies using a labeled list and six example statements, requiring them to name the fallacy (e.g., caricature, incorrect premise, irrelevant evidence). Students complete an "Evaluating My Essay" page in which they reflect on whether their own essay used logical or rhetorical fallacies and whether the book's depiction of cloning is realistic. A table activity asks students to mark yes/no for specific fallacies and to provide examples, prompting analysis of claims and evidence.

Students read primary and secondary historical texts (Charles Denby story and migrant letters) and answer direct factual questions (e.g., why Denby wanted to move; whether he bought a home). Students use population data in the "Growth of American Cities" table to create graphs and answer analytical questions about trends and percentage growth, drawing conclusions from data. Students write a first-person letter (Option 1) or analyze Jacob Lawrence's paintings (Option 2), which requires them to infer experiences and interpret evidence from visual and textual sources.

Students compare paired historical photographs and write observations in the "Before and After" activity, producing concrete descriptive statements about what they see. Students are prompted to speculate about causes and feelings (e.g., "Speculating on reasons for changes in appearance" and questions about how forced changes would have felt), which asks them to generate interpretations. Students use primary-source links and the documentary to gather information and are asked to create an accurate sign for Wounded Knee, which requires synthesizing research into explanatory text.

Students read first-person accounts (Rose Cohen and Joseph Miliauskas) and answer factual questions about treatment, motivations, and punishments, which requires identifying concrete details from texts. Students watch a documentary episode and take notes, then generate 4–6 follow-up questions about the film, prompting them to identify gaps between presented claims and what they want to know. Students brainstorm at least three positive and three negative impacts of Andrew Carnegie and are asked to decide which view (captain of industry or robber baron) is stronger, requiring them to weigh evidence and form a reasoned judgment. Students role-play advising a friend about taking a sweatshop job, evaluating pros and cons based on the readings and film.

Students analyze historical photographs by describing observable details (prompts ask them to note what they see, the setting, and people's characteristics), which supports identifying factual information. Students are asked to speculate about context and outcomes (questions prompt them to suggest what might have been happening when the picture was taken and what happened afterward). Students also compose one- or two-paragraph responses (letters, speeches, or business-owner perspectives) after reading a biography and reviewing working conditions, which requires weighing pros and cons and forming reasoned judgments.

Students are asked to read primary-source newspaper articles about the Lusitania and to write a 3–4 sentence summary, which requires identifying factual content. Students evaluate and rank listed reasons for U.S. entry into World War I and must justify their ordering, which asks them to make reasoned judgments based on provided historical claims. Students analyze propaganda posters by identifying appeals (patriotism, sympathy, guilt, etc.) and write imagined reactions as American and German citizens, practicing recognition of persuasive language versus factual reporting.

Students are asked to create a historically plausible character and to base their scrapbook information on historical facts (Scrapbook Rubric criterion: "All information in the scrapbook is based on historical facts"). Students must give reasons for immigration/migration on the Character Planning page (push/pull factors) and complete a unit test item that asks them to explain "push factors" and "pull factors." The dramatic presentation and scrapbook require students to include factual items (maps, immigration documents, inventors and inventions matching) and to be prepared to answer questions about their choices.

Students make predictions about how abiotic factors will affect seeds before running the experiment (speculation). They record daily observations of germination, growth, color, and appearance (facts/data). They use observations to describe how abiotic factors influenced plants and to explain which factors might have the most or least impact (reasoned judgments based on findings). Activity 2 asks students to identify biotic and abiotic factors from a reading and to describe and predict their impacts, requiring drawing conclusions from text and context.

Students answer direct factual reading questions (e.g., how amoebas intake food; how fungi digest food; where deep-sea bacteria get energy). Students are asked to consult more than one source when researching an animal's digestive system and to summarize/paraphrase their findings in a brochure or report. A discussion prompt asks students to reason about why different digestive systems evolved, inviting students to offer reasoned judgments about evolutionary causes.

Students perform the yeast experiment, record timed observations, and answer explanatory questions such as "Explain what happened" and "What caused the balloon to inflate? Why didn't inflation begin immediately?", requiring them to use experimental results to support explanation. The Optional Extension asks students to make and discuss predictions about how long the balloon will stay inflated, prompting speculation. The photo/diagram activities and wrap-up ask students to summarize processes and chemical equations (photosynthesis, respiration, fermentation), giving factual material students must use when explaining experimental results.

Students collect empirical data in the earthworm light and gravity experiments and record measurements in data tables and bar graphs, providing clear factual observations. Students are asked to state their expectations before experiments (a form of speculation) and then answer follow-up questions comparing those expectations to observed results. In the Reaction Time activity students analyze averages, consider whether age or gender affected outcomes, and draw conclusions about real-world implications, which requires forming reasoned judgments based on data. The Skills section also asks students to compare information gained from experiments with that from reading a text.

Students list traits for each organism and mark presence/absence in a table (e.g., lungs, vertebra, hair/fur), which requires identifying factual characteristics from the text and images. Students use those facts to group organisms and create cladograms, and they are instructed to "use logic" and "explain the reasons" for their groupings, which engages them in making reasoned judgments from evidence. Students are directed to use research (the Animal Diversity Web and other links) and to consider how new findings (like DNA analysis) can change classifications, which asks them to evaluate and apply research findings.

The Parent Plan lists the skill "Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text," which asks students to distinguish explicit text from inference. The Rabbit Research activity asks students to read a scientific article and write facts about the European Rabbit, so students collect research-based factual information. The Foreshadowing and Symbolism activity asks students to read passages and "describe what you think is being foreshadowed," requiring students to generate speculative inferences from the text.

Students are asked to evaluate Fiver's premonition and consider whether events in the chapters match that sense, prompting them to form and justify interpretations from the text. Students are asked what is unusual about Cowslip's warren and encouraged to speculate about what might be going on there, supporting conjectures with details from the reading. The fantasy/epic activity asks students to record examples of each characteristic in Watership Down, requiring them to cite textual evidence for genre claims.

The Parent Plan lists a skill to "Cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text." Activity 2 asks students to use information from the text to list characteristics of Hazel's group and Cowslip's group (classifying text-based traits). The Connection Commander role asks students to make and write connections between the book and their own experience or the world, which requires distinguishing what the text states versus personal interpretation. The "Ideas to Think About" section explicitly contrasts evidence and intuition as approaches to assessing a situation.

Students are asked to research the works cited in chapter quotations and write sentences about the nature, time period, and themes of those works and then explain how each quote relates to events and themes in Watership Down. Students research the plants and animals listed for Chapter 18 to determine whether each is a producer or consumer and what each consumer eats, and then use that information to create a food web (poster or digital diagram).

Students are asked to analyze passages and complete prompts labeled "What the reader knows," "What the characters believe," and "Effect on the reader," requiring them to state differences between audience knowledge and character beliefs. The dramatic irony activities (including Option 1 postcard and Option 2 visual depiction) ask students to find places where the reader knows more than characters and to explain the resulting emotional effect. The parent plan also models answers that identify what the reader knows versus what characters understand, reinforcing the student task of distinguishing knowledge from belief.

Students are asked to provide examples of the "fruits of Hazel's leadership" and to give "examples" from Chapter 41–45, which requires citing text-based events and actions. Discussion prompts ask students to explain why a moment is important and to answer "Why do you think Woundwort made the decision he did?", which invites students to form interpretations or speculations about character motives. The activity asking students to analyze how a filmed or live production "stays faithful to or departs from the text" asks them to evaluate choices and justify those evaluations with reference to the text.

Students read specified sections of a history text and answer comprehension questions that require them to state factual information (e.g., Question #1 asks how the balance shifted in production and readiness; Question #2 asks for Nimitz's strategy). Students explain causes and motivations (e.g., Question #3 asks why Stalin wanted the Allies to invade France), and students place dated events on a timeline and map, which requires identifying and recording factual details about locations and dates.

Students read targeted nonfiction selections and answer specific reading questions with factual answers (e.g., why June 5 or 6 was chosen for D-Day is answered with tides and moon conditions). Students take notes while watching a documentary episode and respond to prompts asking "How was America changing" and "What was the status of women," which require them to record observed information and draw inferences. In the Impact of the War activity students analyze individual cases and fill in sections about life before the war, roles in the war, and how the war might affect their futures, which asks students to move from facts to interpretation and projection.

Students are asked to take guided notes with factual fill-ins (definitions of anti-Semitic, dates like Kristallnacht, lists of other victims, the purpose of ghettos, and details about concentration camps and gas used), which requires recording concrete facts from the text. Students are asked speculative/reflection questions such as "How do you think American soldiers would have felt upon seeing the liberated concentration camps?" that prompt imagining and inference. Students evaluate and justify choices when they explore the museum website and complete the "Field Trip About the Holocaust" pages by selecting which exhibits or resources would be most useful and explaining why, which calls for reasoned judgment based on research from the site.

Students are directed to "explore relevant facts and advice that were available from experts at the time" and to complete an activity chart that includes a column labeled "Facts and Advice/Estimates Available." The chart asks students to answer "Do these facts support dropping atomic bombs on Japan?" and to explain "Why or why not?," prompting students to use evidence to form judgments. The chart rows include items like the Japanese response to invasions and the possible consequences of introducing atomic warfare, which require students to record factual estimates and consider potential outcomes.

Students are asked to include at least one brief primary source on each poster and to use Library of Congress and other research links to write 2–4 sentence summaries and a written paragraph about aspects of the war, which provides practice with factual and research-based material. Students are prompted to "imagine" lives before the war and to answer questions about expectations and how identity affected lives, which requires them to produce speculative text. The rubric emphasizes historical accuracy and analytical responses, indicating students will compare and use factual evidence and produce analytical (reasoned) writing.

Students perform hands-on demonstrations of stratigraphy (The Sands of Time) that require them to observe layered sediments and conclude which layers are older (principle of superposition). In the Relative Dating activity, students sort fossils from different columns and reason about which fossils and layers are older or younger, with the answer key explicitly noting when there is not enough information to decide. In the Radiometric Dating activity, students calculate ages from isotope half-lives and use cross-cutting relationships to create age ranges for sedimentary zones, applying data to draw conclusions.

Students read a Deep Time section that lists historical scientists' age estimates for the Earth and explains why those estimates were wrong, providing examples of reasoned judgments based on limited data. Students read that modern estimates (~4.5 billion years) come from radiometric dating of Earth, Moon, Mars, and asteroids, presenting research-based findings as facts. Students watch a video and read a note that different sources give different dates because dating methods are estimates and scientists continue to collect evidence, and they are instructed to add timeline cards reflecting those differing claims.

Students are asked to explain "When did life first appear on Earth? What was it like? How do we know?" and the provided answer links the claim (bacterial life at ~3.5 bya) to specific evidence (fossilized bacteria in greenstone belts and iron deposits formed by cyanobacteria). The text includes clear factual statements with dates (e.g., lengths of Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic) that students read and place on timeline cards. The lesson also explicitly notes uncertainty in early Earth history ("The exact story...is not as clear as it is in more recent times"), which highlights that some statements are less certain.

Students read a passage that labels Darwin's idea about dog ancestry as speculation and then presents DNA analysis showing all dog breeds split from the gray wolf, giving an explicit example contrasting speculation with a research finding. Students are asked "What evidence leads scientists to believe that biological change has occurred through evolution?" which prompts them to consider evidence-based reasoning. Students analyze the "Generations" table and answer quantitative questions, practicing interpretation of data that can support reasoned judgments.

Students read assigned pages and answer a question asking, "What evidence leads scientists to believe that biological change has occurred through evolution?", requiring them to identify evidence and reasoning from the text. Students respond to a bonus question that asks whether mammals might redevelop gills, prompting them to offer speculative answers and to justify those answers with reasoning (the parent answer models using comparative oxygen facts). Students research examples of convergent evolution and write or create posters comparing anatomical similarities and differences, using researched findings to support their comparisons.

Students are asked to document the "Evidence" for religious and scientific perspectives on evolution using note cards and an "Evolution and Religion" activity page that has separate columns for Religious and Scientific evidence. They are instructed to "Note the evidence that is used by each side," record what scientific tests and religious texts are cited, and to document these side-by-side for comparison. Step 4 requires students to "make a decision" and explain whether their conclusions follow from the research, and rubrics require that conclusions be well-thought-out and follow from presented research.

Students research historical references using provided websites and answer specific factual questions on the Historical References activity page (e.g., what happened to Communists, meaning of "Aryan," what yellow stars meant). Students analyze Nazi propaganda posters by identifying target audiences, goals, and what makes each poster effective, and they record examples of propaganda from the text, noting whether citizens participated out of fear or loyalty. The parent/skills notes instruct students to "analyze the purpose of information" and "interpret and evaluate" motives behind media, which frames tasks requiring evaluation based on evidence.

Students learn and practice identifying specific logical fallacies (slippery slope, bandwagon, genetic fallacy, hasty generalization, post hoc, appeal to improper authority) in Part I and in analyzing ads. Students analyze quoted propaganda passages and identify which fallacies are present, explain what emotions the arguments appeal to, and justify why the arguments may have been effective. Students are prompted to evaluate the relevance and sufficiency of evidence and to cite textual examples when explaining the soundness of reasoning (skills list and answer keys reinforce identifying unsupported claims).

Students are asked to "delineate a speaker's argument and specific claims, evaluating the soundness of the reasoning and relevance and sufficiency of the evidence" and to "evaluate the credibility of a speaker (e.g., hidden agendas, slanted or biased material)." Students watch two Hitler speech/rally clips and take notes on what might have been compelling about the speaking and rally tactics, focusing attention on persuasive techniques and evidence of orchestration. The "Things to Review" section asks students to review the definition of propaganda and examples of forms it can take, prompting consideration of when information is persuasive versus informational.

Students are asked to record examples of propaganda from the reading (Part Seven) and to analyze informational versus propaganda aspects of a 1943 newsreel in the War Journalism activity. The War Journalism questions ask students to identify how correspondents brought vivid descriptions, list main news sources (newspapers, radio, newsreels), and to compare Ernie Pyle's column to regular news articles. The Getting Started and introductory notes present and distinguish factual historical information (e.g., Molching is fictional; Dachau was a real camp; an estimated 300,000 people were killed in German town bombings between 1939 and 1945).

Students are asked to read an essay by Walter Cronkite about censorship and to take a side, writing reasons and examples to support two reasons and preparing a counterargument and refutation. Students analyze three WWII propaganda posters using prompts that ask how each poster is propaganda, what emotions it tries to generate, and what logical fallacies are present. The parent/skills notes explicitly instruct students to explore and evaluate argumentative works, recognizing effects of bias, emotional factors, and comparing arguments and counter-arguments.

Students work with a data chart that lists pre-war population, war-related deaths, and GDP for five countries and complete a graphing activity that asks them to calculate deaths as a percentage of pre-war population and to graph GDP changes from 1938 to 1945. Students answer photo-analysis questions that ask which image helped them understand the end of World War II and what that image revealed, prompting interpretation of visual evidence. In the advertising activity, students compare historical and modern ads and answer evaluative questions such as whether a historical ad would be effective today, which requires forming reasoned judgments based on observed features.

Students read and summarize primary and secondary texts about the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan (Day 2 readings and questions ask for summaries and identification of adversaries and motives). Students read Truman's actual speech and Henry Wallace's letter and are asked to view and interpret Cold War political cartoons, thinking about what the cartoonist was trying to say. Students decide whether aid was wise and create their own political cartoon or poster expressing a position, which requires distinguishing viewpoints and making an argument.

Students are asked to "List 3 facts that JFK provided" in the Analysis of Kennedy's Speech activity, which requires identifying factual claims from a primary text. In Option 1 ("What Would You Do?") students read advisers' recommendations, "use the provided materials to research the events, evaluate the various factors that affect decision-making," and complete a page asking them to weigh advantages and disadvantages and explain their rationale, which requires forming reasoned judgments based on evidence. The Red Scare activity asks students to write journal entries from positions "In Support" and "In Opposition," prompting them to construct arguments grounded in the historical context.

Students read multiple historical texts and answer factual comprehension questions about events (for example, questions about Claudette Colvin, the Arkansas National Guard, Jim Crow laws, and Brown v. Board of Education). Students complete a comparative organizer that asks them to consider why community organizers rallied around Rosa Parks instead of Claudette Colvin, which requires them to weigh possible reasons and draw conclusions from the readings. In Activity 2 students analyze biographical sketches of people killed during the civil rights era and then produce either a memorial poem or a newspaper clipping, tasks that require them to interpret evidence and form judgments about individuals' lives and deaths.

Students answer direct reading questions (Q1–Q4) that require identifying concrete facts from the text, such as why Hartman Turnbow's house was firebombed and what the Voting Rights Act did. Students analyze photographs and answer prompts about where the photo came from and what it shows, which asks them to document sources and interpret observable evidence. Students engage in role-play and written planning where they list reasons to join Freedom Summer and generate objections and counter-arguments, practicing formation of judgments and supported responses.

Students are asked to read primary and secondary sources (Section 5 of Free at Last; Jessica Govea; SCLC page; Black Panther platform) and answer factual comprehension questions about causes of tensions, roles of leaders, and working conditions. The Differing Strategies Venn diagram explicitly instructs students to "write facts specific to each organization" and to list similarities in the overlap. In Activity 2 students must write a short persuasive speech that includes information about treatment of farm workers, at least two reasons to support a boycott, and a quotation from Chavez, which requires making reasoned claims based on evidence from readings and the video.

Students read U.S. Department of State webpages (The Gulf of Tonkin, The Tet Offensive, Ending the Vietnam War) and answer specific factual questions about what the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution authorized, what Tet is, and the impact of the Tet Offensive. The "Things to Know" section lists concrete factual claims (e.g., Domino Effect, Agent Orange) that students read. In Activity 1 students compose a one-page letter expressing their opinions about protest and whether they would have protested the war, and in Activity 3 students review veterans' interviews and reflect on personal experiences and impacts.

The Parent Plan lists a skill to "Use argument supported by evidence for how the body is a system of interacting subsystems," which points to students constructing evidence-based claims. In Activity 2 students are asked to brainstorm how a decision could affect a body system (generating hypotheses) and then "look up each decision on the KidsHealth website" to describe another system affected (gathering research-based information). The activities ask students to compare their brainstormed ideas with information from a research source and to discuss answers with a parent.

Students read informational text about cells, tissues, organs, and systems and answer direct factual questions (e.g., What is the function of the cell membrane? What are the four primary tissue types?). Students conduct investigations and dissections (earthworm or carrot) to collect observational evidence about anatomy and tissue structure. The Skills list asks students to "Conduct an investigation to provide evidence" and to "Use argument supported by evidence for how the body is a system of interacting subsystems," which supports forming reasoned judgments based on findings.

Students perform an experiment (Parts 1–4) where they record observable data (color changes of the red cabbage indicator) and answer questions such as whether inhaled or exhaled air is acidic and what in the air changed the pH. Students are asked to interpret their experimental results explicitly (e.g., "Did this experiment demonstrate that the air you breathe out is different from the air you breathe in? Why or why not?") and to offer explanations (e.g., "What do you think happened to make the color change more quickly?"). The flowchart and calculation activities require students to use data (steps of respiration, percent compositions) to support conclusions about how respiration works.

Students read assigned textbook pages and answer direct factual questions (e.g., definitions of puberty and factors that determine lifespan). In Activity 2 students read an external overview of environmental health, label environmental issues, identify affected body parts, and are asked to "briefly explain a possible negative consequence," with optional internet research. The Parent Plan skills list explicitly includes "Construct a scientific explanation based on evidence for how environmental and genetic factors influence the growth of organisms."

Students watch a video about Alabama in the 1930s and create a mind map summarizing historical information, which requires them to record factual details (Great Depression, Jim Crow laws, lynchings). Students answer a journal question asking whether they would have wanted to live in Alabama in the 1930s and explain why, which elicits personal judgment and speculation. Students are prompted in discussion and the wrap-up to identify "evidence of the historical period" in the first two chapters and to consider explanations for Boo's situation, which asks them to cite observations and offer interpretations.

Students are asked to write a literature response that refers to specific examples from the book and may include feelings, opinions, predictions, or questions, which requires them to generate inferences and speculation. The Parent Plan skills state that students should "cite the textual evidence that most strongly supports an analysis of what the text says explicitly as well as inferences drawn from the text," prompting students to identify explicit text and make reasoned inferences. Activity 2 directs students to read an article about Harper Lee and connect her life experiences to the novel, which asks students to use background (research) information to form connections or judgments.

Students are instructed to list five items about Boo that come from "Hearsay and Gossip" and five items that come from "Personal Experience and Reliable Sources" using Chapters 1 and 5, explicitly distinguishing rumor from firsthand information. The Student Activity Page directs students to compare and contrast the two columns and then "develop your own hypothesis about who Boo really is," prompting them to form a reasoned judgment. The Parent Plan skill statement tells students to cite textual evidence that supports analysis and inferences, reinforcing use of evidence when making conclusions.

Students answer factual questions such as where the children sat in the courtroom (Question #3) and describe the town's atmosphere on trial day (Question #2). Students make reasoned judgments when they explain how Aunt Alexandra's and Atticus's attitudes reveal underlying beliefs (Question #1) and analyze how Atticus sought to discredit Mr. Ewell (Question #4). Students are also prompted to speculate about outcomes when asked how they think the trial will end in the Wrapping Up section.

Students read chapters 18–20 and answer direct questions that require them to extract concrete details from testimony (e.g., What details about Mayella's life did you learn?; What is Tom Robinson's version of events?). Students complete activities that apply courtroom vocabulary and sequence trial events, which requires them to use evidence from the text to fill blanks and order steps of the trial. Discussion prompts ask students to weigh whether the jury will believe Atticus's version and to consider Tom's difficult position, prompting evaluation of evidence versus community prejudice.

Students work directly with census population numbers in Activity 1 and Activity 2, graphing data and calculating each city's percent of the U.S. population, which exposes them to factual data. In Activity 2 students are asked to "think about why a city might grow slower or faster" and to "suggest reasons," prompting them to make evidence-based inferences from the data. In Activity 4 students read a CFR backgrounder, take notes on differing viewpoints, and write a short letter to the editor arguing a position, which requires weighing competing claims and forming judgments.

Students read an informational passage about Bill Gates and answer direct factual questions, demonstrating practice in identifying facts from a text. In the Emerging Technologies and Space Age Technology activities, students research technologies, rank them, and write justification paragraphs that require forming reasoned judgments supported by examples. The Annotated Bibliography and final-project work require students to locate primary and secondary sources and use research to support their claims.

Students answer factual reading questions (e.g., identify Al-Qaeda, targets hit, Operation Enduring Freedom) that require extracting facts from the linked text. Students may interview an adult about their memories and feelings, producing subjective recollections and opinions. Students examine artifacts and accompanying supporting documents and write interpretive paragraphs explaining what each artifact symbolizes and how it helped them understand 9/11.

Students read a historical account and answer factual reading questions (e.g., percent of high school athletes who were girls, outcomes of the 1976 Warsaw Tigers), and they analyze NCES enrollment data to calculate percentages of women in undergraduate enrollment over time. In Activity 1 students are asked "What changes do you think might account for this shift in enrollment?" which prompts them to offer explanatory judgments based on the presented data. In Activity 2 students listen to songs and respond to questions about themes, style, mood, and whether they enjoyed the songs, producing personal interpretations and opinions.

Activity 1 directs students to record product names and any claims on packaging or in commercials, to underline claims that seem feasible and highlight claims that seem outlandish, and to compare prices and other similar products. The Student Activity Page for Evaluating Advertising has explicit sections for Product Name, Claims, and Other Similar Products That Cost Less to support this work. The lesson gives an example (an acne product claiming you'll 'never have another pimple') and asks students to count how many questionable claims they identified.

Students compare Longfellow's poem "Paul Revere's Ride" to Paul Revere's first-person account using a Venn diagram and guided questions that ask them to note similarities and differences in content, use of literary language, and details. The teacher notes and answer key explicitly describe Revere's account as a "first-person testimony" focused on reporting what happened and Longfellow's poem as a "fictionalized, poetic account" that is dramatic and sometimes inaccurate. An optional extension directs students to an article that points out factual inaccuracies in Longfellow's poem and asks students to consider how knowing the poem is inaccurate affects their reading or appreciation.

In Question #2 students are asked to compare the poem "Euclid" with Whitman's "When I Heard the Learn'd Astronomer," and the provided answer directs students to note a contrast between "the facts and figures of science" and the "wonder of nature," prompting identification of factual description versus other kinds of statements. Question #3 asks students to consider how labeling the narrator as "stupid and insensitive" changes understanding, which has students evaluate narrator perspective and whether statements represent the narrator's opinion or a factual claim. The Gubbinal answer explicitly tells students to treat some lines as the view of an insensitive narrator rather than as an objective statement, encouraging students to separate narrator opinion from broader claims.